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POPE LEO XIII

Born March 2, 1810; died July 20, 1903.

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THE GREAT

ENCYCLICAL LETTERS

POPE LEO XIII.

TRANSLATIONB FROM APPROVED 80UR0EB.

WITH PREFACE BY

Rev. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J.

New York, Cincinnati, Chicago:

be:n2:igkr brothers,

Printed in the United States of Ameriea.

ntbfl Obdtat.

REMIGIUS LAFORT, S.T.L.,

Censor Librorum.

ffmprimatar.

►J<. JNO. M. FARLEY,

Archbishop of New York

IXm-w ToKK, August 4^ 1908.

PREFACE.

The popular demand for the Encyclicals and Apostolical
Letters of a Roman Pontiff is something go novel as to
constitute of itself a proof of the esteem in which he is
held. It would seem that whatever is written of Leo XIIT.
in books or newspapers, instead of satisfying ttie universal
desire for a knowledge of him, only inspires the wish to
know more, and the conviction that the writings of a
man of such powers and world-wide sympathies must
contain messages of interest and benefit to all humanity.

It is precisely the merit of the Letters of the late Pope
that no matter when they were written, or to whom they
were addressed, they are of actual and universal interest,
as intelUgible to the layman and illiterate as to the theo-
logian and scholar, as urgent in their appeals to those
who are not within the fold of which he was chief pastor
as to the children of the household. His arguments
could not but command attention, drawn as they were
from history, experience, and reason, as well as from
Scripture and tradition; and his sincere interest in the
civil and social improvements of every nation, whether
Catholic or not, made all hearken to his plea for religion
as the chief factor of true progress.

The Letters which we have selected are all character-
istic of Leo. Taken together they express his sentiments
on the chief questions of a time which, owing to his great
influence in civil as well as in ecclesiastical matters, is
really an epoch in the history of men. His influence on

DECS 1S33

4 PREFACE.

scientific studies alone is sufficient proof of this. Never
was science so arrogant as when Leo XIII. began to
recommend to Catholics the study of sound philosophy.
Twenty-five years ago, scientists everywhere were pro-
claiming oracularly, like Tyndall and Huxley among
the English-speaking nations, the victory of science over
reUgion, when Leo declared that there could be no question
of victory where there was no conflict, and that only men
who were ignorant of the true nature of religion and
science could consider them mutually antagonistic. If
to-day a Brunetiere without fear of contradiction can
proclaim science bankrupt, it is in a great measure be-
cause Leo's Encyclical on the Study of St. Thomas and
Scholastic Philosophy inspired Catholic scientists, and
through their influence non-Catholic scientists as well,
to study both theology and science more ardently, sys-
tematically, and conservatively, and with such success
in reconciling their apparent disagreements that the
best scientists of our day recognize how each is but a
study from a different aspect of the same great First
Cause and its effects, and that each must necessarilj'-,
therefore, be in accord with the other. Lord Kelvin's
words, "Science positively affirms Creative Power . . .
we are absolutely forced by science to believe with per-
fect confidence in a Directive Power," and his further
assertion, "If you think strong enough you will be forced
by science to the belief in God, which is the foundation
of all religion; you will find science not antagonistic but
helpful to religion," are but a re-echo of Leo's utterances
a quarter of a century ago. A perusal of the Letters
contained in this volume will satisfy the reader that in
other spheres as well as in that of science, in education,
sociology, and statesmanship, the late Pontiff, by adapt-
ing himself to his age and studying carefully its needs
and possibilities, has so far influenced its thought and
tendencies, and so plainly altered its current of events, as
to have opened a new era in its history.

PREFACE. 5

It would perhaps be an exaggeration to say that never
before had a Supreme Pontificate been exercised with
more distinction than by Leo XIII., but surely in no
Pontiff has the world at large appreciated so well as in
him the nature, duties, and prerogatives of the papal
office; and this appreciation is due chiefly, if not entirely,
to his Pontifical acts as a teacher, ruler, and high priest,
whose teachings, authority and spiritual ministration
have exercised an influence on all humanity, as well as
on his own subjects.

As teacher, Leo XIII. was not content with recom-
mending true doctrine, or urging reforms and improve-
ments in Catholic universities and seminaries ; but, setting
an example, he issued, in season and out of season, his
own instructions based on the soundest principles of reason
and revelation about the family, liberty, socialism, the
relations of the working man with his employers, the
right use of political powers, the menace of secret societies
to the governments that harbor them, the duties of Chris-
tian citizens and the constitution of Christian States.
As ruler, he exercised a singular power over his cardinals
and bishops, many of whom he was magnanimous enough
to appoint when their views and policy did not coincide
entirely with his own. By counsel, direction, and com-
mand, he was ever aiding them to govern their dioceses,
and to impart to the faithful proper guidance in every
matter affecting faith and morals. As priest and Pontiff,
he was solicitous for the unity, integrity, and splendor of
Christian worship, instituting many reforms in the ob-
servance of the liturg}'' and in ecclesiastical music, but
he was more solicitous still for the interior holiness of the
faithful, as appears by his Letters on Human Liberty,
The Right Ordering of Christian Life, Marriage, The
Holy Spirit, Christ the Redeemer, and by his zeal in
raising to the altars the approved models of Christian
perfection in every walk of life.

An ardent love of truth, an unwavering detemiination

6 PREFACE.

to preserve peace and concord not only among Catholics
but between them and their fellow-citizens, whether
believers in Christianity or not, and an unfailing spirit
of hope, are the chief characteristics of Leo in these En-
cyclicals. The great Pontiff was no pessimist. If he
never lost sight of the evils afilicting hiunanitj^, neither
did he ever fail to provide a remedy, nor on occasion to
take comfort in what was good, and to praise most gener-
ously all who had labored to accomplish it; in this he
was really the Vicar of Christ, from his tribulations learn-
ing patience, from patience trial, and from trial hope —
the hope that confoundeth not, because it shared in the
supreme confidence of Christ in humanity, who, as Leo
loved to remind men, was willing "v/hen we were yet
weak, according to the time, to die even for the ungodly. '
For translations of Encychcals not specially made for
this book we are indebted to The Tablet, The Ameri-an
Catholic Qvxirterly Review, The Catholic World, The iV-."-
senger, The Catholic Mind, "The Pope and the People,"
and various pamphlets pubhshed by Benziger Brothers.

CONTENTS.

rxam

On the Evils Affecting Modern Society. 9

Socialism, Communism, Nihilism 22

The Study of Scholastic Philosophy. ': 34

Christian Marriage 58

Freemasonry 83

The Christian Constitution op States 107

Human Liberty. '/;. 'II,^.^!: r.5/i*l . . . . 135

The Right Ordering of Christian Life 164

On the Chief Duties of Christians as Citizens ISO

The Condition op the Working Classes 208

Allegiance to the Republic 249

The Pope and the Columbus Tercentenary 264

The Study of Holy Scripture 271

The Reunion op Christendom 303

Catholicity in the United States 320

To the English People 336

The Unity of the Church V.^^.' : .' 350

Anglican Orders 392

The Prohibition and Censorship of Books 407

The Holy Spirit 422

True and False Americanism in Religion 441

On the Consecration op Mankind to the Sacred Heart

OP Jesus 454

Christ Our Redeemer 462

Christian Democracy 479

S CONTENTS.

FAOB

The Religious Congregations in France 495

Congratulations to the American Hierarchy 513

The Most Holy Eucharist 517

The Holy Scriptures ; The Biblical Commission 537

The Church in the Philippines 544

Review of His Pontificatb 554

ENCYCLICAL LETTERS OF LEO XIII.

ON THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES.
Encyclical Letter Inscrutahili, April 21, 1878.

When by God's unsearchable design, We, though all
unworthy, were raised to the height of apostohc dig-
nity, at once We felt Ourselves moved by an urgent
desire and, as it were, necessity, to address you by letter,
not merely to express to you Our very deep feeling of
love, but further, in accordance with the task entrusted
to Us from heaven, to strengthen you who are called to
share Our solicitude, that you may help Us to carry on
the battle now being waged on behalf of the Chiu-ch of
God and the salvation of souls.

For, from the very beginning of Our Pontificate, the
sad sight has presented itself to Us of the evils by which
the human race is oppressed on every side: the widespread
subversion of the primary truths on which, as on its foun-
dations, human society is based; the obstinacy of mind
that will not brook any authority however lawful; the
endless sources of disagreement, whence arrive civil strife,
and ruthless war and bloodshed; the contempt of law
which moulds characters and is the shield of righteous-
ness; the insatiable craving for things perishable, with

10 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

complete forgetfulness of things eternal, leading up to
the desperate madness whereby so many wretched beings,
in all directions, scruple not to lay violent hands upon
themselves; the reckless mismanagement, waste, and
misappropriation of the pubhc funds; the shamelessness
of those who, full of treachery, make semblance of being
champions of country, of freedom, and every kind of
right; in fine, the deadly kind of plague which infects
society in its inmost recesses^ allowing it no respite and
foreboding ever fresh disturbances and final disaster.

Now, the source of these evils lies chiefly. We are con-
vinced, in this, that the holy and venerable authority of
the Church, which in God's name rules mankind, upholding
and defending all lawful authority, has been despised and
set aside. The enemies of pubhc order, being fully aware
of this, have thought nothing better suited to destroy the
foundations of society than to make an unflagging attack
upon the Church of God, to bring her into discredit and
odium by spreading infamous calmnnies, and accusing
her of being opposed to genuine progress. They labor
to weaken her influence and power by wounds daily
inflicted, and to overthrow the authority of the Bishop of
Rome, in whom the abiding and unchangeable principles
of right and good find their earthly guardian and champion.
From these causes have originated laws that shake the
structure of the Catholic Church, the enacting whereof we
have to deplore in so many lands ; hence too have flowed
forth contempt of episcopal authority; the obstacles
thrown in the way of the discharge of ecclesiastical duties ;
the dissolution of reUgious bodies; and the confiscation
of property that was once the support of the Church's
ministers and of the poor. Thereby public institutions,
vowed to charity and benevolence, have been withdrawn
from the wholesome control of the Church; thence also
has arisen that unchecked freedom to teach and spread
abroad all mischievous principles, while the Church's
claim to train and educate youth is in every way outraged

THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 11

and baffled. Such too is the purpose of the seizing of the
temporal power, conferred many centuries ago by Divine
Providence on the Bishop of Rome, that he might without
let or hindrance use the authority conferred by Christ for
the eternal welfare of the nations.

We have recalled to your minds. Venerable Brothers,
this deathly mass of ills, not to increase the sorrow natu-
rally caused you by this most sad state of things, but
because we believe that from its consideration j^ou will
most plainly see how serious are the matters claiming our
attention as well as devotedness, and with what energy
We should work and, more than ever, under the present
adverse conditions, protect, so far as in Us lies, the Church
of Christ and the honor of the Apostolic See — ^the objects
of so many slanders — and assert their claims.

It is perfectly clear and evident, Venerable Brothers,
that the very notion of civilization is a fiction of the brain
if it rest not on the abiding principles of truth and the
unchanging laws of virtue and justice, and if unfeigned
love knit not together the wills of men, and gently control
the interchange and the character of their mutual service.
Now, who would make bold to deny that the Church, by
spreading the Gospel throughout the nations, has brought
the hght of truth amongst people utterly savage and
steeped in foul superstition, and has quickened them
alike to recognize the Divine Author of nature and duly
to respect themselves? Further, who will deny that the
Church has done away with the curse of slavery and
restored men to the original dignity of their noble nature;
and — by upHfting the standard of Redemption in all
quarters of the globe, by introducing, or shielding under
her protection, the sciences and arts, by founding and
taking into her keeping excellent charitable institutions
which provide rehef for ills of every kind — has throughout
the world, in private or in public hfe, civihzed the human
race, freed it from degradation, and with all care trained
it to a way of Uving such as befits the dignity and the hopes

12 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

of man? And if any one of sound mind compare the age
in which We Hve, so hostile to rehgion and to the Church
of Christ, with those happy times when the Church was
revered as a mother by the nations, beyond all question he
will see that Our epoch is rushing wildly along the straight
road to destruction; while in those times which most
abounded in excellent institutions, peaceful life, wealth,
and prosperity the people showed themselves most
obedient to the Church's rule and laws. Therefore, if the
many blessings We have mentioned, due to the agency and
saving help of the Church, are the true and worthy out-
come of civilization, the Church of Christ, far from being
alien to or neglectful of progress, has a just claim to all
men's praise as its nurse, its mistress, and its mother.

Furthermore, that kind of civilization which conflicts
with the doctrines and laws of holy Church is nothing
but a worthless imitation and a meaningless name. Of
this those peoples on whom the gospel Ught has never
shown afford ample proof, since in their mode of life a
shadowy semblance only of civilization is discoverable,
while its true and solid blessings have never been possessed.
Undoubtedly that cannot by any means be accounted the
perfection of civilized life which sets all legitimate author-
ity boldly at defiance ; nor can that be regarded as liberty
which, shamefully and by the \'ilest means, spreading
false principles, and freely indulging the sensual gratifi-
cation of lustful desires, claims impunity for all crime and
misdemeanor, and thwarts the goodly influence of the
worthiest citizens of whatsoever class. Delusive, perverse,
and misleading as are these principles, they cannot
possibly have any inherent power to perfect the human
race and fill it with blessing, for sin maketh nations miser'
able} Such principles, as a matter of course, must hurry
nations, corrupted in mind and heart, into every kind
of infamy, weaken all right order, and thus, sooner or

' Prov. xiv. 34.

THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 13

later, bring the standing and peace of the State to the
very brink of ruin.

Again, if We consider the achievements of the See of
Rome, what can be more wicked than to deny how much
and how well the Roman Bishops have served civilized
society at large? For Our predecessors, to provide for the
peoples' good, encountered struggles of every kind, endured
to the utmost burdensome toils, and never hesitated
to expose themselves to most dangerous trials. With
eyes fixed on heaven, they neither bowed doun their
head before the threats of the wicked, nor allowed them-
selves to be led by flattery or bribes into unworthy com-
pliance. This Apostolic Chair it was that gathered and
held together the crumbling remains of the old order of
things; this was the kindly light by whose help the cul-
ture of Christian times shone far and wide; this was an
anchor of safety in the fierce storms by which the hum.an
race has been convulsed; this was the sacred bond of
union that linked together nations distant in region and dif-
fering in character ; in short, this was a common centre from
which was sought instruction in faith and religion, no less
than guidance and advice for the maintenance of peace
and the functions of practical life. In very truth it is the
glory of the supreme Pontiffs that they steadfastly set
themselves up as a wall and a bulwark to save human
society from falling back into its former superstition and
barbarism.

Would that this healing authority had never been
slighted or set aside! Assuredly neither would the civil
power have lost that venerable and sacred glory, the
lustrous gift of religion, which alone renders the state of
subjection noble and worthy of man; nor would so many
revolutions and wars have been fomented to ravage the
world with desolation and bloodshed; nor would king-
doms, once so flourishing, but now fallen from the height
of prosperity, lie crushed beneath the weight of every
kind of calamity. Of this the peoples of the East also

14 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

furnish an example, who, by breaking the most sweet yoke
that bound them to this Apostolic See, forfeited the
splendor of their former greatness, their renown in science
and art, and the dignity of their sway.

Of these remarkable benefits, however, which illustrious
monuments of aU ages prove to have flowed upon every
quarter of the world from the Apostolic See, this land of
Italy has had the most abounding experience. For it
has derived advantages from the See of Rome proportionate
to the greater nearness of its natural situation. Unques-
tionably to the Roman Pontiffs it is that Italy must own
herself indebted for the substantial glory and majesty by
which she has been pre-eminent amongst nations. The
influence and fatherly care of the Popes have upon many
occasions shielded her from hostile attack and brought
her relief and aid, the effect of which is that the Catholic
faith has been ever maintained inviolate in the hearts of
Italians.

These services of Our predecessors, to omit mention of
many others, have been witnessed to in a special manner
by the records of the times of St. Leo the Great, Alexander
III., Innocent III., St. Pius V., Leo X., and other Pontiffs,
by whose exertions or protection Italy has escaped un-
scathed from the utter destruction threatened by bar-
barians; has kept unimpaired her old faith, and, amid
the darkness and defilement of a ruder age, has cultivated
and preserved in vigor the lustre of science and the splen-
dor of art. To this furthermore bears witness Our Owti
fostering city, the home of the Popes, which, under their
rule, reaped this special benefit, that it not only was the
strong citadel of the faith, but also became the refuge of
the liberal arts and the very abode of culture, winning
for itself the admiration and respect of the whole world.
As these facts in all their ampHtude have been handed
down in historical records for the perpetual remembrance
of posterity, it is easy to understand that it is only With
hostile design and shameless calumny — ^meant to mislead

THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 15

men — that any one can venture in speech and in writing
to accuse the Apostolic See of being an obstacle to the
civil progress of nations and to the prosperity of Italy.

Seeing, therefore, that all the hopes of Italy and of
the whole world lie in the power, so beneficent to the
common good and profit, wherewith the authority of the
Apostolic See is endowed, and in the close union which
binds all the faithful of Christ to the Roman Pontiff, We
recognize that nothing should be nearer Our heart than
how to preserve safe and sound the dignity of the Roman
See, and to strengthen ever more and more the union of
members with the Head, of the children -v^ath their Father.

Wherefore, that We may above all things, and in every
possible way, maintain the rights and freedom of this
Holy See, We shall never cease to strive that Our authority
may meet with due deference; that obstacles may be
removed which hamper the free exercise of Our ministry
and that we may be restored to that condition of things
in which the design of God's wisdom had long ago placed
the Roman Pontiffs. We are moved to demand this
restoration. Venerable Brethren, not by any feeling of
ambition or desire of supremacy, but by the nature of Our
office and by Our sacred promise confirmed on oath; and
further, not only because this sovereignty is essential to
protect and preserve the full liberty of the spiritual power
but also because it is an ascertained fact that, when the
temporal sovereignty of the Apostolic See is in question,
the cause of the public good and the well-being of all
human society in general are also at stake. Hence We
cannot omit, in the discharge of Our duty, which obliges
Us to guard the rights of Holy Church, to renew and con-
firm in every particular by this Our Letter those declara-
tions and protests which Pius IX., of sacred memory, Our
predecessor, on many and repeated occasions published
against the seizing of the civil sovereigiity and the infringe-
ment of rights belonging to the Roman Church. At the
same time We address ourselves to princes and chief rulers

16 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

of the nations, and earnestly beseech them in the augiist
name of the most high God, not to refuse the Church's aid,
proffered them in a season of such need, but with united
and friendly aims to join themselves to her as the source
of authority and salvation, and to attach themselves to
her more and more in the bonds of hearty love and devoted-
ness. God grant that — seeing the truth of Our words and
considering within themselves that the teaching of Christ
is, as Aug-ustine used to say, "a great blessing to the State,
if obeyed," ^ and that their own peace and safety, as well
as that of their people, is bound up with the safety of the
Church and the reverence due to her — they may give
their whole thought and care to mitigating the evils
by which the Church and its visible Head are harassed,
and so it may at last come to pass that the peoples whom
they govern may enter on the way of justice and peace, and
rejoice in a happy era of prosperity and glory.

In the next place, in order that the union of hearts
between their chief Pastor and the whole Catholic flock
may daily be strengthened. We here call upon you, Ven-
erable Brothers, with particular earnestness, and strongly
urge you to kindle, with priestly zeal and pastoral care, the
fire of the love of religion among the faithful entrusted to
you, that their attachment to this chair of truth and
justice may become closer and firmer, that they may
welcome all its teachings with thorough assent of mind
and will, wholly rejecting such opinions, even when most
widely received, as they know to be contrary to the
Church's doctrine. In this matter, the Roman Pontiffs,
Our predecessors, and last of all, Pius IX, of sacred mem-
ory, especially in the General Council of the Vatican, have
not neglected, so often as there was need, to condemn
wide-spreading errors and to smite them with the Apostolic
condenmation. This they did, keeping before their eyes
the words of St. Paul: Beware lest any man cheat you by

» Epistola 138 (vel 5), ad Marcell, n. 15

THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 17

philosophy and vain deceit, according to the tradition of men,
according to the elements of the world and not according to
Christ.^ All such censures, We, following in the steps of
Our predecessors, do confirm and renew from this Apostolic
Seat of truth, whilst We earnestly ask of the Father of
Lights that all the faithful, brought to thorough agreement
in the like feeling and the same belief, may think and
speak even as Ourselves. It is your duty, Venerable
Brothers, sedulously to strive that the seed of heavenly
doctrine be sown broadcast in the field of God, and that the
teachings of the Catholic faith may be implanted early in
the souls of the faithful, may strike deep root in them,
and be kept free from the ruinous blight of error. The
more the enemies of religion exert themselves to offer the
uninformed, especially the young, such instruction as
darkens the mind and corrupts morals, the more actively
should we endeavor that not only a suitable and solid
method of education may flourish, but above all that this
education be wholly in harmony with the Catholic faith
in its literature and system of training, and chiefly in
philosophy, upon which the foundation of other sciences
in great measure depends. Philosophy seeks not the
overthrow of divine revelation, but delights rather to
prepare its way, and defend it against assailants, both by
example and in WTitten works, as the great Augustine
and the Angelic Doctor, with all other teachers of Christian
wisdom, have proved to Us.

Now, the training of youth most conducive to the defence
of true faith and religion and to the preservation of morality
must find its beginning from an early stage within the
circle of home life; and this family Christian training,
sadly undermined in these our times, cannot possibly be
restored to its due dignity, save by those laws imder which
it was established in the Church by her Divine Founder
HimseK. Our Lord Jesus Christ, by raising to the dignity

*Coloss. ii. 8.

18 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

of a sacrament the contract of matrimony, in which He
would have His Own union with the Church typified, not
only made the marriage-tie more holy, but in addition pro-
vided efl&cacious sources of aid for parents and children
alike, so that, by the discharge of their duties one to another,
they might with greater ease attain to happiness both in
time and in eternity. But when impious laws, setting at
naught the sanctity of this great sacrament, put it on the
same footing with mere civil contracts, the lamentable
result followed, that, outraging the dignity of Christian
matrimony, citizens made use of legalized concubinage
in place of marriage; husband and wife neglected their
bounden duty to each other; children refused obedience
and reverence to their parents ; the bonds of domestic love
were loosened; and, alas! the worst scandal and of all the
most ruinous to public morality, very frequently an unholy
passion opened the door to disastrous and fatal separa-
tions. These most unhappy and painful consequences,
Venerable Brothers, cannot fail to arouse your zeal and
move you constantly and earnestly to warn the faithful
committed to your charge, to listen with docility to your
teaching regarding the hoUness of Christian marriage, and
to obey the laws by which the Church controls the duties
of married people and of their offspring.

Then, indeed, will that most desirable result come
about, that the character and conduct of individuals also
will be reformed; for just as from a rotten stock are pro-
duced healthless branches or worthless fruits, so do the
ravages of a pestilence which ruins the household spread
wide their cruel infection to the hurt and injury of individ-
ual citizens. On the other hand, when domestic society
is fashioned in the mould of Christian life, each member
will gradually grow accustomed to the love of religion and
piety, to the abhorrence of false and harmful teaching,
to the pursuit of virtue, to obedience to elders, and to the
restraint of that insatiable seeking after self-interest alone,
which so spoils and weakens the character of men. Tt

TBE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. IV

this end it will certainly help not a little to encourage and
promote those pious associations which have been estab-
lished, in our own times especially, with so great profit to
the cause of the Catholic religion.

Great indeed and beyond the strength of man are these
objects of our hopes and prayers, Venerable Brothers; but
since God has made the nations of the earth for health,^ when
He foimded the Church for the welfare of the peoples, and
promised that He will abide with her by His assistance to
the end of the world. We firmly trust that, through your
endeavors, the human race, taking warning from so many
evils and visitations, will submit themselves at length to
the Church, and timi for health and prosperity to the
infallible guidance of this Apostolic See.

Meanwhile, Venerable Brothers, before bringing this
Letter to a close . We must express Our congratulations on
the striking harmony and concord which unites your minds
among yourselves and with this Apostolic See. This per-
fect union We regard as not merely an impregnable bulwark
against hostile attacks, but also as an auspicious and
happy omen, presaging better times for the Church; and,
wWle it yields great relief to Our weakness, it seasonably
encourages Us to endure with readiness all labors and all
struggles on behalf of God's Church in the arduous task
which We have undertaken.

Moreover, from the causes of hope and rejoicing which
We have made known to you. We cannot separate those
tokens of love and obedience which you, Venerable Breth-
ren, in these first days of Our Pontificate, have shown
Our lowliness, and with you so many of the clergy and
the faithful, who, by letters sent, by offerings given, by
pilgrimages imdertaken, and by other works of love, have
made it clear that the devotion and charity which they
manifested to Our most worthy predecessor, still lasts, so
strong and steadfast and unchanged, as not to slacken

* Wisdom L 14.

20 THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY.

towards the person of a successor so much inferior. For
these splendid tokens of Catholic piety We humbly confess
to the Lord that He is good and gracious, while to you,
Venerable Brothers, and to all Our beloved children from
whom We have received them. We publicly, from the
bottom of Our heart, avow the grateful feelings of Our
soul, cherishing the fullest confidence that, in the present
critical state of things and in the difficulties of the times,
this your devotion and love and the devotion and love of
the faithful will never fail Us. Nor have We any doubt
that these conspicuous examples of fifial piety and Chris-
tian virtue will be of such avail as to make Our most merci-
ful God, moved by these dutiful deeds, look with favor
en His flock and grant the Church peace and victory. But
as We are sure that this peace and victory will more
quickly and more readily be given Us, if the faithful are
anremitting in their prayers and supplications to obtain
it, We earnestly exhort you, Venerable Brothers, to stir
up for this end the zeal and ardor of the faithful, taking
the Immaculate Queen of heaven as their intercessor
with God, and having recourse as their advocates to
St. Joseph, the heavenly Patron of the Church, and to
SS. Peter and Paul, the Princes of the Apostles. To the
powerful patronage of all these We humbly commit Our
lowfiness, all ranks of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and all
the flock of Christ our Lord.

For the rest. We trust that these days, on which We
renew the memory of Jesus Christ, risen from the dead,
may be to you. Venerable Brothers, and to all the fold of
God, a source of blessing and salvation and fulness of holy
joy, praying our most gracious God that by the blood of
the Lamb without spot, which blotted out the handwriting
that was against Us, the sins We have committed may
be washed away, and the judgment We are suffering for
them may mercifully be mitigated.

The grace of Our Lord Jesus Christ, and the charity of
God, and the communication of the Holy Ghost be with you

THE EVILS AFFECTING MODERN SOCIETY. 21

aU,^ Venerable Brothers; to each and all of whom, aa well
as to Our beloved children, the clergy and faithful of your
churches, as a pledge of Our special good-will and as an
earnest of the protection of heaven, We lovingly impart the
Apostolic Benediction.

* 3 Cor. xiiL 13.

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM.

Encyclical Letter Quod Apostolici Muneris, December 28,

1878.

As the nature of Our Apostolic office required of Us,
We have not omitted, from the very outset of Our Pon-
tificate, addressing you, Venerable Brothers, in Encyclical
Letters, in order to advert to the deadly plague which is
tainting society to its very core and bringing it to a state
of extreme peril. At the same time We call attention to
certain most effectual remedies, by which society maj'
be renewed unto salvation and enabled to escape the
crisis now threatening.

But the evils which We then deplored have taken in a
brief space of time such widespread growth that We are
compelled to address you anew, Math the words of the
prophet resounding as it were in Our ears: Cry, ceast
not, lift up thy voice like a trumpet}

You understand as a matter of course. Venerable
Brothers, that We are alluding to that sect of men who,
under the motley and all but barbarous terms and titles
of Socialists, Communists, and Nihilists, are spread abroad
throughout the world and, bound intimately together in
baneful aUiance, no longer look for strong support in secret
meetings held in darksome places, but standing forth
openly and boldly in the light of day, strive to carry out
the purpose long resolved upon, of uprooting the founda-
tions of civiUzed society at large.

These are they in very truth who, as the sacred text

' Isai. Iviii. 1.
32

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 23

bears witness, defile the flesh, and despise dominion, and
blaspheme majesty} They leave nothing scathless or un-
injured of that which human and divine laws ahke have
wisely ordained to ensure the preservation and honor of
life. From the heads of States to whom, as the Apostle
admonishes, all owe submission, and on whom the rights
of authority are bestowed by God Himself, these sectaries
withhold obedience and preach up the perfect equality of
all men in regard to rights alike and duties. The natural
union of man and woman, which is held sacred even
among barbarous nations, they hold in scorn; and its
bond, whereby family life is chiefly maintained, they
slacken, or else yield up to the sway of lust. In short,
spurred on by greedy hankering after things present,
which is the root of all evils, which soms coveting have erred
from the faith,^ they attack the right of property, sanc-
tioned by the law of nature, and with signal depravity,
while pretending to feel solicitous about the needs, and
anxious to satisfy the requirements of all, they strain every
eflfort to seize upon and hold in common all that has been
individually acquired by title of lawful inheritance, through
intellectual or manual labor, or economy in living. These
monstrous views they proclaim in public meetings, uphold
in booklets, and spread broadcast everywhere through the
daily press. Hence the hallowed dignity and authority
of rulers has incurred such odium on the part of rebellious
subjects that evil-minded traitors, spurning all control,
have many a time within a recent period boldly raised
impious hands against even the very heads of States.

Such daring conduct on the part of disloyal individuals,
which threatens the civilized community from day to
day with even graver perils, and troubles the mind of all
with anxious fears, draws its cause and origin from those
venomous teachings which, like pernicious seed scattered
far and wide among the nations, have produced in course

» Jude 8. » 1 Tim. vi. 10.

24 SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM,

of time death-bearing fruit. In fact, Venerable Brothers,
you know full well that the atrocious war which, starting
from the sixteenth century, was declared against the
Catholic faith by the Reformers, and which has been
growing amain from day to day in vehemence, aimed at
giving free course to the rejection of all revelation, the
subversion of the supernatural order, and the enthrone-
ment of unaided reason, with its vagaries or rather ravings.
Deriving pretentiously its name from Reason, this false
doctrine, by flattering and stimulating the eagerness to
outstrip others which is interwoven with man's nature,
and giving the rein to every kind of unlawful desire, has
taken wilhng possession of the minds of great numbers,
and has even pervaded the whole of civilized society.
Hence by a fresh act of impiety, unknown even to very
pagans, governments have been organized without God
and the order established by Him being taken at all into
account. It has even been contended that public author-
ity, with its dignity and its power of ruUng, originates
not from God but from the mass of the people, which,
considering itself unfettered by all divine sanction, refuses
to submit to any laws that it has not itself passed of its
own free will. Next, after having attacked and cast
away the supernatural truths of faith as being contrary
to reason, the very Author and Redeemer of mankind
has been forced slowly and gradually to withdraw from
the scheme of studies at universities, colleges, and high-
schools, as well as from all the practical working of public
life. In fine, after having consigned to obhvion the rewards
and punishments of a future and never-ending existence,
the keen longing after happiness has been narrowed down
to the range of the present life. With such doctrines spread
far and wide, and such license in thought and action, it is
no wonder that men of the most lowly condition, heart-
sick of a humble home or poor workshop, should fix eager
eyes on the abodes and fortunes of the wealthy; no
wonder that tranquillity no longer prevails in public or

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 25

private life, or that the human race has been hurried
onward to well-nigh the verge of ruin.

But the supreme pastors of the Church, on whom
devolves the charge of guarding the Lord's flock from
the snares of the enemy, have in good time devoted their
energies to avert the danger impending, and to provide
for the safety of the faithful. In fact, as soon as secret
societies began to take extension, in the midst whereof
the germs of those evil principles already adverted to
were nursed, the Roman Pontiffs Clement XV. and Bene-
dict XIV. failed not to unmask the impious designs of
the sectaries, and to warn the faithful throughout the
world concerning the mischiefs they were thus hatching
in secret. But when by those who gloried in the title of
"philosophers" a certain unbridled liberty was assigned
to man, and the "new law," as they term it, began in
opposition to the divine and natural law to be set forth
and gather sanction, Pius VI, of happy memory forth-
with laid bare by public documents the pernicious char-
acter and falsity of those principles, and at the same time,
with apostolic foresight, predicted the utter ruin to which
the deluded multitudes were being hurried. But since,
notwithstanding the measures resorted to, none proved
of avail to prevent their wicked doctrines from day by
day gaining ground with the people, and obtaining ascend-
ency even in pubUc decisions of government, Popes
Pius VII, and Leo XII, excommunicated secret societies,
and once more gave warning to society of the perils that
threatened it. In fine, the world at large is fully aware
in what earnest terms, and with what resoluteness of
soul and unflinching constancy, Our glorious predecessor,
Pius IX, of happy memory, by Allocutions alike and
Encyclical Letters addressed to the Bishops of the whole
world, levied war against the iniquitous endeavors of
these sects, and furthermore even denounced by name
the plague of Socialism thence bursting forth,
Jt is to be deplored, however, that they to whom has

26 SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM.

been entrusted the care of the common welfare, allowing
themselves to be circumvented by the fraudulent devices
of infamous men and terror-stricken at their threats,
have ever displayed towards the Church feelings of sus-
picion or even of hostility, not understanding that the
endeavors of these sects would have been of no effect
had the doctrine of the Catholic Church and the authority
of the Roman Pontiffs, among rulers and peoples alike,
always remained in due honor. For the Church of the
living God, which is the pillar and ground of truth,^ pro-
claims those doctrines and precepts whereby the security
and cahn of society is provided for, and the accursed brood
of Socialism is utterly destroyed.

For although the Socialists, turning to evil use the
Gospel itself so as to deceive more readily the unwar}-,
have been wont to twist it to their meaning, still so striking
is the disagreement between their criminal teachings and
the pure doctrine of Christ, that no greater can exist: For
what participation hath justice with injustice, or what fellow-
ship hath light with darkness?^ They in good sooth cease
not from asserting — as we have already mentioned — that
all men are by nature equal, and hence they contend that
neither honor nor respect is owed to public authority, nor
any obedience to the laws, saving perhaps to those which
have been sanctioned according to their good pleasure.
Contrariwise, from the Gospel records, equality among
men consists in this, that one and all, possessing the same
nature, are called to the sublime dignity of being sons of
God ; and, moreover, that one and the same end being set
before all, each and every one has to be judged according
to the same laws and to have punishments or rewards
meted out according to individual deserts. There is, how-
ever, an inequality of right and authority which emanates
from the Author of nature Himself, of whom dlT'patermty
in heaven and earth is named.^ ^As regards rulers and

» 1 Tim. m. 15. »2 Cor. vi. 14. » Eph. iil 1&

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 27

subjects, all without exception, according to Catholic
teaching and precept, are mutually bound by duties and
rights, in such manner that, on the one hand, moderation
is enjoined on the appetite for power, and, on the other,
obedience is shown to be easy, stable, and wholly honor-
able. Therefore does the Church constantly urge upon
each and all who are subject to her the apostolic precept:
There is no power hut from God; and those that are, are
ordained of God. Therefore, he that resisteth the powers
resisteth the ordinance of God. And they that resist, purchase
to themselves damnation. And again : Be subject of necessity,
not only for wrath, hut also for conscience' sake; and render to
all men their dues. Trihute to whom trihute is du£; custom
to whom custom; fear to whom fear; honor to whom honor.^
For He who has created and governs all things, has in His
provident wisdom so disposed them that the lowest attain
to their end by the middlemost, and the middlemost by
the highest. Just then as the Almighty willed that, in
the heavenly kingdom itself, the choirs of angels should
be of differing ranks, subordinated the one to the other ;
again just as in the Church God has estabhshed different
grades of orders with diversity of functions, so that aU
should not be apostles, all not doctors, all not prophets; '
so also has He established in civil society many orders
of varying dignity, right, and power. And this, to the
end that the State, like the Church, should form one body
comprising many members, some excelling others in rank
and importance, but all alike necessary to one another
and solicitous for the common welfare.

But to the end that the rulers of the people shall emploji
the power bestowed for the advancement, and not detri-
ment, of those under nile, the Church of Christ very fit-
tingly warns the rulers themselves that the Sovereign
Judge mil call them to a strict and speedy account, and
evoking the words of divine wisdom, she addresses them

* Rom. xiii. 1-7. » 1 Cor. xii. 29.

28 SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM.

one and all in God's name. Give ear, you that rule the
people, and that please yourselves in multitudes of nations;
for power is given you by the Lord, and strength by the Most
High, who ivill examine your works, and search out your
thoughts; . . . for a most severe judgment shall he for them
that bear rule. . . . For God will not accept any man's per-
son, neither will He stand in awe of any one's greatness: for
He hath made the little and the great, and He haih equally
care of all. But a greater punishment is ready for the more
mighty.^ Should it, however, happen, at any time, that in
the public exercise of authority rulers act rashly and
arbitrarily, the teaching of the Catholic Church does not
allow subjects to rise against them, without further
warranty, lest peace and order become more and more dis-
turbed, and society run the risk of greater detriment. And
when things have come to such a pass as to hold out no
further hope, she teaches that a remedy is to be sought in
the virtue of Christian patience and in urgent prayer to
God. But should it please legislators and rulers to enjoin
or sanction anything repugnant to the divine and natura}
law, the dignity and duty of the name of Christian and
the Apostolic injunction proclaim that one ought to obey
God rather than men.^

Moreover, the salutary influence of the Church, which
redounds to the upholding of well-regulated order in civil
society and promotes its conservation, the family circle
itself (which is the starting-point of every city and everj'^
State) necessarily feels and experiences. For you are
fully aware, Venerable Brothers, that the governing
principle of family life has, in accordance with the require-
ments of natural law, its basis in the indissoluble union of
husband and vvife, and its superstructure in the duties
and rights of parents and children, and of masters and
servants towards each other. You are further aware
that the theories of socialism would quickly destroy this

* Wisd. vL 3 aeqq. ' Acts v. 29.

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 29

family life, since the stability afforded by marriage under
religious sanction once lost, paternal authority over
children and the duties of children to parents are neces-
sarily and most harmfully slackened. Contrariwise, mar-
riage, honorable to all,^ which from the beginning of the
world God Himself instituted for the propagation and
preservation of the human race, and decreed to be indis-
soluble, the Church holds to have become more stable and
holy through Christ, who conferred on it the dignity of a
sacrament, and willed to make it an image of His own
union with the Church. Wherefore, as the Apostle ad-
monishes: As Christ is the head of the Church, so is the
husband the head of the vrife;^ and just as the Church is
subject to Christ, who cherishes it with most chaste and
lasting love, so is it becoming that women also should be
subject to their husbands, and by them in turn be loved
with faithful and constant affection.

In like manner the Church regulates the authority of
the father and the master in such mode as to keep
children and servants within their duty, without, however,
allowing authority to be overstepped. For, according
to CathoHc teaching, the authority of the heavenly Father
and Lord flows forth upon parents and masters, and on
that account receives not only its origin and power from
God, but also its very nature and character. Hence does
the Apostle exhort children to obey their parents in the
Lord, and to honor their father and their mother, which is the
first commandment with a promise? And you, fathers,
provoke not your children to anger, but bring them up in
the discipline and correction of the Lord} And again by
the same divine apostolic injunction it is urged on ser-
vants and masters that the former should obey their masters
according to the flesh . . . as to Christ . . . vnth a good
will serving as to the Lord, ... * but the latter should

» Heb. xiii. 4. » Eph. v. 23. » Ibid. vi. 1, 2.

* Ibid. vi. 4. » Ibid. vi. 5-7.

30 SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM.

forbear threatenings, knouming that the Lord of oil is in
heaven, and there is no respect of persons with Him} Were
all these things observed by every one whom they con-
cern, according to the intent of the divine Will, each
family would truly present a likeness of the heavenly
home, and the wondrous benefits thence resulting would
not be limited simply to the family circle, but would
spread abroad abundantly over the State at large.

As regards the maintenance of public and private tran-
quillity, Catholic wisdom, sustained by both divine and
natural law, prudently provides through what it holds
and teaches touching the right of ownership and the
apportioning of personal property which has been accu-
mulated for the wants and requirements of life. For
the Socialists wrongly assume the right of property to be
of mere human invention, repugnant to the natural equal-
ity between men, and, preaching up the community of
goods, declare that no one should endure poverty meekly,
and that all may with impunity seize upon the possessions
and usurp the rights of the wealthy. More wisely and
profitably the Church recognizes the existence of inequality
amongst men, who are by nature unlike in mental endow-
ment and strength of body, and even in amount of fortune ;
and she enjoins that the right of property and of its dis-
posal, derived from nature, should in the case of every
individual remain intact and inviolate. She knows full
well indeed that robbery and rapine have been so for-
bidden by God, the Author and Protector of every right,
that it is unlawful even to covet the goods of others, and
that thieves and robbers no less than adulterers and
idolaters are excluded from the kingdom of heaven. Nor
does she, on this account, loving mother as she is, omit
solicitude for the poor or fail to provide for their needs;
nay, taking them to her arms with maternal affection,
and knowing that they in a manner represent the person

»Eph. vi. 9.

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 31

of Christ Himself, who accounts as done unto Him any
benefit conferred upon the lowHest among the poor, she
holds them in great account, brings them aid to the ut-
most of her power, takes thought to have erected in every
land in their behoof homes and refuges where they can
be received, nurtured, and tended; and takes these char-
itable foundations under her protecting care. Moreover,
she lays the rich under strict command to give of their
superfluity to the poor, impressing them with fear of the
divine judgment which will exact the penalty of eternal
punishment unless they succor the wants of the need}-.
In fine, she cheers and comforts exceedingly the hearts
of the poor, either by setting before them the example
of Christ, who, being rich became poor for our sakes,^ or
by reminding them of the words by which Jesus pro-
nounced the poor to be blessed, and enjoined them to hope
for the reward of eternal bliss. Who then does not per-
ceive that herein lies the best means of appeasing the
undying conflict between the rich and poor? For, as
the evidence of things and facts clearly demonstrates,
if such conclusion be disallowed or made light of, it must
come about either that the vast majority of mankind will
fall back into that most abject condition of bondage which
through a long lapse of time obtained amongst pagan
nations, or else that human society will be agitated by
constant outbreaks and ravaged by plunder and rapine,
such as even of late years we have had occasion to deplore.
Since things have come to this pass. Venerable Brothers,
We, on whom is laid the charge of governing the Universal
Church, pointed out even at the very outset of Our Pon-
tificate to the nations and their rulers, tossed about by
so dire a tempest, the port to which they could betake
themselves in all safety. And now, moved greatly by the
extreme peril which actually threatens. We lift up anew
Our ApostoHc voice, and conjure them again and again,

^ 2 Cor. viii. 9.

32 SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM.

for the sake of their own safety and that of the State, to
welcome and obey the teaching of that Church which has
deserved so well in promoting the public prosperity of
nations, and to recognize once for all that the relations
of the State and of Religion are so bound together as that
whatever is withdrawn from religion impairs by so much
the dutiful submission of the subject and the dignity of
authority. And when they shall have recognized that
the Church of Christ is possessed of a power to stave off
the pest of Socialism, too mighty to be found in human
enactments or in the strong hand of the civil power or in
military force, let them re-establish that Church in the
condition and liberty needed in order to be able to exer-
cise her most salutary influence for the good of society
in general. Do you, how^ever, Venerable Brothers, who
have keen insight as to the nature and origin of the ills
thickening ever in the world, apply yourselves with all
zeal and energy of spirit to inculcate CathoUc doctrine,
that it may reach and strike deep root in the souls of all.
Provide as far as may be that from early years all may
grow accustomed to cherish a filial love towards God, and
to revere His sovereign sway; to show due submission to
rulers and the laws ; to bridle their passions and zealously
uphold the authority which God has established alike
in the State and in the family circle. Moreover, it be-
hooves you to strive earnestly that the children of the
Catholic Church venture not to lend their name, nor in
any way to give countenance to this hateful sect, but on
the contrary that by worthy deeds and honorable line
of action in all particulars, they show how well and happily
human society would prosper were the individual members
distinguishable for the regularity of their conduct and for
their virtuous hfe. Finally, as the confederates of So-
ciahsm are sought mainly among those who occupy them-
selves in business pursuits, or give themselves to manual
labor, and who, wearied out by sheer hard work, are more
easily entrapped by the hope of wealth and promise of

SOCIALISM, COMMUNISM, NIHILISM. 33

prosperity, it seems -expedient„to. encourage associations
for handicraftsmen and laboring men, which, placed under
the^ sheltering care- of religion, may render the membera^
content^with their lot and resigned to toil, inducing them
tii_lead a peaceful and tranquil life.

On Our undertakings, Venerable Brothers, and on
yours, may He confer favoring aid to whom we are bound
to refer the beginning and the end of all good. We
have ample ground to hope for speedy help during these
auspicious days when the festival of Our Lord's Nativity
is being celebrated. That new deliverance which Christ,
born into a world sinking with years and well-nigh crushed
with the weight of ills, charges us to hope for; that peace
which then He announced to men through the ministry
of angels. He has promised to bestow likewise on us. For
the hand of the Lord is not shortened, that He cannot save,
neither is His ear heavy, that it cannot hear} During these
days, then, of most happy augury, Venerable Brothers,
wishing to you and to all the faithful of your churches all
joy and prosperity. We earnestly pray the Giver of all good
gifts that anew to men may appear the goodness and kind-
ness of God our Saviour,^ who, after having snatched us
from the power of a ruthless enemy, has raised us up to
the most exalted dignity of being sons of God. And in
order that our vows may be the more speedily and abun-
dantly satisfied, join with Us, Venerable Brothers, in ad-
dressing to God fervent prayers, invoking also the patron-
age of the Blessed Virgin Mary, ever immaculate, and of
her spouse, Joseph, as also of the blessed Apostles, Peter
and Paul, in whose intercession we greatly confide. And
in the meantime, with inmost affection of heart to you,
Venerable Brothers, to your clergy and to all the faithful
throughout the world, as a harbinger of the divine gifts,
We impart Our Apostolic blessing.

^Is. lix.1. 'Titiii. 4.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.
Encyclical Letter Mtemi Patris, August 4, 1879.

The only-begotten Son of the Eternal Father, who
came on earth to bring salvation and the light of divine
wisdom to men, conferred a great and wonderful blessing
on the world when, about to ascend again into heaven,
He commanded the apostles to go and teach all nations,*
and left the Church which He had founded to be the
common and supreme teacher of the peoples. For men,
whom the truth had set free, were to be preserved by
the truth; nor would the fruits of heavenly doctrines,
by which salvation comes to men, have long remained
had not the Lord Christ appointed an unfaihng authority
for the instruction of the faithful. And the Church
built upon the promises of its own divine Author, whose
charity it imitated, so faithfully followed out His com-
mands that its constant aim and chief wish was this:
to teach true rehgion and contend forever against errors.
To this end assuredly have tended the incessant labors
of individual bishops; to this end also the pubhshed laws
and decrees of Councils, and especially the constant watch-
fulness of the Roman Pontiffs, to whom, as successors,
of the blessed Peter in the primacy of the apostles, be-
longs the right and office of teaching and confirming
their brethren in the faith. Since, then, according to the
warning of the apostle, the minds of Christ's faithful are
apt to be deceived and the integrity of the faith to be
corrupted among men by philosophy and vain deceit,'
the supreme pastors of the Church have always thought

» Matt, xxviii. 19. * Coloss. ii. 8.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 35

it their duty to advance, by every means in their power,
Bcience truly so called, and at the same time to provide
with special care that all studies should accord with the
Catholic faith, especially philosophy, on which a right
apprehension of the other sciences in great part, depends.
Indeed, Venerable Brethren, on this very subject among
others. We briefly admonished you in Our first Encyclical
Letter; but now, both by reason of the graAdty of the
subject and the condition of the time, we are again com-
pelled to speak to you on the mode of taking up the study
of philosophy which shall respond most fitly to the true
faith, and at the same time be most consonant with the
dignity of human knowledge.

Whoso turns his attention to the bitter strifes of these
days and seeks a reason for the troubles that vex public
and private life, must come to the conclusion that a
fruitful cause of the evils which now afflict, as weU as
of those which threaten us, lies in this: that false con-
clusions concerning divine and human things, which
originated in the schools of philosophy, have crept into
all the orders of the State, and have been accepted by
the common consent of the masses. For since it is in
the very nature of man to follow the guide of reason in his
actions, if his intellect sins at all his will soon follows;
and thus it happens that looseness of intellectual opinion
influences human actions and perverts them. Whereas,
on the other hand, if men be of sound mind and take
their stand on true and solid principles, there will result
a vast amount of benefits for the public and private good.
We do not, indeed, attribute such force and authority
to philosophy as to esteem it equal to the task of com-
bating and rooting out all errors; for, when the Christian
reUgion was first constituted, it came upon earth to re-
store it to its primeval dignity by the admirable light of
faith, diffused not by persuasive words of human wisdom,
but in the manifestation of spirit and of power ; * so also

• 1 Cor. ii. 4.

36 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

at the present time we look above all things to the power-
ful help of Almighty God to bring back to a right under-
standing the minds of men and dispel the darkness of
error. But the natural helps with which the grace of
the divine wisdom, strongly and sweetly disposing all
things, has supplied the human race are neither to be
despised nor neglected, chief among which is evidently
the right use of philosophy. For not in vain did God
set the light of reason in the human mind; and so far
is the superadded light of faith from extinguishing or
lessening the power of the intelligence that it completes
it rather, and by adding to its strength renders it capable
of greater things.

Therefore divine Providence itself requires that in
calling back the peoples to the paths of faith and salva-
tion advantage should be taken of human science also —
an approved and wise practice which history testifies was
observed by the most illustrious Fathers of the Church.
They, indeed, were wont neither to behttle nor under-
value the part that reason had to play, as is summed up
by the great Augustine when he attributes to this science
"that by which the most wholesome faith is begotten, . . .
is nourished, defended, and made strong," *

In the first place, philosophy, if rightly made use of by
the wise, in a certain way tends to smooth and fortify
the road to true faith, and to prepare the souls of its
disciples for the fit reception of revelation; for which
reason it is well called "by ancient writers sometimes a
stepping-stone to the Christian faith,^ sometimes the pre-
lude and help of Christianity,' sometimes the Gospel
teacher.* And assuredly the God of all goodness, in all
that pertains to di\dne things, has not only manifested
by the light of faith those truths which human intelligence

* De Trim., lib. xiv. c. 1.

'Clem. Alex., Strom., lib. i. c. 16; L viL c. 3.

' Orig. ad Greg. Thaum.

*Gem. Alex.. Strom., i. c. 5*

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 37

could not attain of itself, but others also not altogether
unattainable by reason, that by the help of divine au-
thority they may be made known to all at once and with-
out any admixture of error. Hence it is that certain
truths which were either divinely proposed for belief,
or were bound by the closest chains to a doctrine of faith,
were discovered by pagan sages with nothing but their
natural reason to guide them, were demonstrated and
proved by becoming arguments. For, as the apostle
says, the invisible things of Him, from the creation of
the world, are clearly seen, being understood by the
things that are made: His eternal power also and
divinity;^ and the Gentiles who have not the law
show, nevertheless, the work of the law written in their
hearts.' But it is most fitting to turn these truths, which
have been discovered by the pagan sages even, to the
use and purposes of revealed doctrine, in order to show
that both human wisdom and the very testimony of our
adversaries serve to support the Christian faith — a method
Avhich is not of recent introduction, but of estabhshed
use, and has often been adopted by the holy Fathers of
the Church. For instance, those venerable men, the
witnesses and guardians of religious traditions, recognize
a certain form and figure of this in the action of the He-
brews, who, when about to depart out of Egypt, were
commanded to take with them the gold and silver vessels
and precious robes of the Egyptians, that by a change of
use thte things might be dedicated to the service of the
true God which had formerly been the instruments of
ignoble and superstitious rites. Gregory of Neocaesarea '
praises Origen expressly because, with singular dexterity,
as one snatches weapons from the enemy, he turned to
the defence of Christian wisdom and to the destruction
of superstition many arguments drawn from the writings
of the pagans. And both Gregory of Nazianzen * and

■ Rom. i. 20. * Orat paneg. ad Origen.

'Ibid. ii. 14, 15. * Vit. Moys.

38 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

Gregory of Nyssa * praise and commend a like mode of
disputation in Basil the Great; while Jerome especially
commends it in Quadratus, a disciple of the apostles,
in Aristides, Justin, Irenseus, and very many others.'
Augustine says: " Do we not see Cyprian, that mildest
of doctors and most blessed of martyrs, going out of
Egypt laden with gold and silver and vestments? And
Lactantius also and Victorinus, Optatus and Hilar}'?
And, not to speak of the living, how many Greeks have
done Ukewise?'" But if natural reason first sowed this
rich field of doctrine before it was rendered fruitful by
the power of Christ, it must assuredly become more pro-
lific after the grace of the Saviour has renewed and added
to the native faculties of the human mind. And who
does not see that a plain and easy road is opened up to
faith by such a method of philosophic study?

But the advantage to be derived from such a
school of philosophy is not to be confined within these
limits. The foolishness of those men is gravely reproved
in the words of divine wisdom who by these good things
that are seen could not understand Him that is, neither
by attending to the works could have acknowledged who
was the workman.* In the first place, then, this great
and noble fruit is gathered from human reason, that it
demonstrates that God is; for by the greatness of the
beauty and of the creature the Creator of them may be
seen so as to be known thereby.^ Again, it shows God
to excel in the height of all perfections, in infinite wisdom
before which nothing hes hidden, and in absolute justice
which no depraved affection could possibly shake; and
that God, therefore, is not only true but truth itself,
which can neither deceive nor be deceived. Whence it
clearly follows that human reason finds the fullest faith
and authority united in the word of God. In like manner

* Carin, i. Iamb. 3. * Wisdom xiii. 1.

• Epist. ad Magn. * Ibid. xiii. 5.
»De Doctr. christ., 1. ii. c. 40.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY, 39

reason declares that the doctrine of the Gospel has even
from its very beginning been made manifest by certain
wonderful signs, the estabhshed proofs, as it were, of un-
shaken truth; and that all, therefore, who set faith in
the Gospel do not believe rashly as though following
cunningly devised fables,* but, by a most reasonable
consent, subject their intelligence and judgment to an
authority which is divine. And of no less importance
is it that reason most clearly sets forth that the Church
instituted by Christ (as laid down in the Vatican Synod),
on account of its wonderful spread, its marvellous sanc-
tity, and its inexhaustible fecundity in all places, as well
as of its Catholic unity and unshaken stabiUty, is in itself
a great and perpetual motive of belief and an irrefra-
gable testimony of its own divine maission.^

Its solid foundations having been thus laid, a perpetual
and varied service is further required of philosophy, in
order that sacred theology may receive and assiune the
nature, form, and genius of a true science. For in this,
the most noble of studies, it is of the greatest necessity
to bind together, as it were, in one body the many and
various parts of the heavenly doctrines, that, each being
allotted to its o^\ti proper place and derived from its own
proper principles, the whole may join together in a com-
plete union; in order, in fine, that all and each part may
be strengthened by its own and the others' invincible
arguments. Nor is that more accurate or fuller knowledge
of the things that are believed, and somewhat more lucid
understanding, as far as it can go, of the very mysteries
of faith which Augustine and the other Fathers com-
mended and strove to reach, and which the Vatican Synod
itself ' declared to be most fruitful, to be passed over in
silence or behttled. Those will certainly more fully and
more easily attain that knowledge and understanding who
to integrity of life and love of faith join a mind rounded

» 2 Petr. i. 16. » Const, dogm. de Fid. Cath., capt 3.

^ Const, cit. cap. 4.

40 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

and finished by philosophic studies, as the same Vatican
Synod teaches that the knowledge of such sacred dogmas
ought to be sought as well from analogy of the things that
are naturally known as from the connection of those
mysteries one with another and with the final end of
man/

Lastly, the duty of religiously defending the truths
divinely delivered, and of resisting those who dare op-
pose tiiem, pertains to philosophic pursuits. Where-
fore it is the glory of philosophy to be esteemed as the
bulwark of faith and the strong defence of religion. As
Clement of Alexandria testifies, the doctrine of the Saviour
is indeed perfect in itself and wanteth naught, since it is
the power and wisdom of God. And the assistance of
the Greek philosophy maketh not the truth more power-
ful; but inasmuch as it weakens the contrary arguments
of the sophists and repels the veiled attacks against the
truth, it has been fitly called the hedge and fence of the
vine.^ For as the enemies of the Catholic name, when
about to attack reUgion, are in the habit of borrowing
their weapons from the arguments of philosophers, so the
defenders of sacred science draw many arguments from
the store of philosophy which may serve to uphold re-
vealed dogmas. Nor is the triumph of the Christian
faith a small one in using human reason to repel power-
fully and speedily the attacks of its adversaries by the
hostile arms which human reason itself supplied. Which
species of religious strife St. Jerome, writing to Magnus,
notices as having been adopted by the apostle of the
Gentiles himself : Paul, the leader of the Christian army
and the invincible orator, battling for the cause of Christ,
skilfully turns even a chance inscription into an argu-
ment for the faith; for he had learned from the true
David to wrest the sword from the hands of the enemy
and to cut off the head of the boastful Goliath with his

» Const, cit. cap. 4. ' Strom., lib. i. c. 20.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 41

own weapon.^ Moreover, the Church herself not only
urges, but even commands, Christian teachers to seek
help from philosophy. For the fifth Council of Lateran,
after it had decided that "every assertion contrary to
the truth of revealed faith is altogether false, for the
reason that it contradicts, however shghtly, the truth," '
advises teachers of philosophy to pay close attention to
the exposition of fallacious arguments; since, as Augus-
tine testifies, "if reason is turned against the authority
of sacred Scripture, no matter how specious it may seem,
it errs in the likeness of truth; for true it cannot be."'

But in order that philosophy may be found equal to
the gathering of those precious fruits which we have
indicated, it behooves it above all things never to turn
aside from that path which the Fathers have entered
upon from a venerable antiquity, and which the Vatican
Council solemnly and authoritatively approved. As it
is evident that very many truths of the supernatural I
order which are far beyond the reach of the keenest in-
tellect must be accepted, human reason, conscious of its
own infirmity, dare not affect to itself too great powers,
nor deny those truths, nor mieasure them by its o-wti
standard, nor interpret them at Mill; but receive them
rather with a full and humble faith, and esteem it the
highest honor to be allowed to wait upon heavenly doc-
trines like a handmaid and attendant, and by God's good-
ness attain to them in any way whatsoever. But in
the case of such doctrines as the human intelligence may
perceive, it is equally just that philosophy should make
use of its own method, principles, and arguments — not
indeed in such fashion as to seem rashly to withdraw
from the divine authority. But since it is established
that those things which become known by revelation
have the force of certain truth, and that those things
which war against faith war equally against right reason,

' Epist. ad Magn. * Bulla Apostolici regiminis.

» Epist. 143 (al 7), ad. Marcellin., n. 7.

t^ THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

the Catholic philosopher will know that he violates at
once faith and the laws of reason if he accepts any con-
clusion which he understands to be opposed to revealed
doctrine.

We know that there are some who, in their overesti-
mate of the human faculties, maintain that as soon as
man's intellect becomes subject to divine authority it
falls from its native dignity, and, hampered by the yoke
of this species of slavery, is much retarded and hindered
in its progress towards the supreme truth and excellence.
Such an idea is most false and deceptive, and its sole
tendency is to induce foolish and ungrateful men wilfully
to repudiate the most subHme truths, and reject the
divine gift of faith, from which the fountains of all good
things flow out upon civil society. For the human mind,
being confined within certain limits, and those narrow
enough, is exposed to many errors and is ignorant of
many things; whereas the Christain faith, reposing on the
authority of God, is the unfailing mistress of truth, whom
whoso foUoweth he will be neither immeshed in the snares
of error nor tossed hither and thither on the waves of
fluctuating opinion. Those, therefore, who to the study
of philosophy unite obedience to the Christian faith are
philosophers indeed; for the splendor of the divine truths,
received into the mind, helps the understanding, and
not only detracts in nowise from its dignity, but adds
greatly to its nobility, keenness, and stability. For
surely that is a worthy and most useful exercise of reason
when men give their minds to disproving those things
which are repugnant to faith and proving the things
which conform to faith. In the first case they cut the
ground from under the feet of error and expose the vicious-
ness of the arguments on which error rests; while in the
second case they make themselves masters of weighty
reasons for the sound demonstration of truth and the
satisfactory instruction of any reasonable person. Who-
ever denies that such study and practice tend to add to

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 43

the resources and expand the faculties of the mind must
necessarily and absurdly hold that the mind gains nothing
from discriminating between the true and the false. Justly,
therefore, does the Vatican Council conmiemorate in
these words the great benefits which faith has conferred
upon reason: Faith frees and saves reason from error, and
endows it with manifold knowledge} A wise man, there-
fore, would not accuse faith and look upon it as opposed
to reason and natural truths, but would rather offer
heartfelt thanks to God, and sincerely rejoice that, in
the density of ignorance and in the flood-tide of error,
holy faith, hke a friendly star, shines down upon his path
and points out to him the fair gate of truth beyond all
danger of wandering.

If, Venerable Brethren, you open the history of phi-
losophy, you will find all We have just said proved by
experience. The philosophers of old who lacked the gift
of faith, yet were esteemed so wise, fell into many appalhng
errors. You know how often among some truths they
taught false and incongruous things; what vague and
doubtful opinions they held concerning the nature of the
Divinity, the first origin of things, the government of
the world, the divine knowledge of the future, the cause
and principle of evil, the ultimate end of man, the eternal
beatitude, concerning virtue and vice, and other matters,
a true and certain knowledge of which is most necessary
to the human race; while, on the other hand, the early
Fathers and Doctors of the Church, who well understood
that, according to the divine plan, the restorer of human
science is Christ, who is the power and the wisdom of
God,2 and in whom are hid all the treasures of wisdom
and knowledge,^ took up and investigated the books of the
ancient philosophers, and compared their teachings with
the doctrines of revelation, and, carefully sifting them,
they cherished what was true and wise in them and

' Const, dogm. de Fid. Cath., cap. 4. ' 1 Cor. i. 24.

' Coloss. ii. S.

44 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

amended or rejected all else. For as the all-seeing God
against the cruelty of tyrants raised up mighty martyrs
to the defence of the Church, men prodigal of their great
lives, in hke manner to false philosophers and heretics
he opposed men of great wisdom, to defend, even by the
aid of hmnan reason, the treasure of revealed truths.
Thus from the very first ages of the Church the Catholic
doctrine has encountered a multitude of most bitter
adversaries, who, deriding the Christian dogmas and
institutions, maintained that there were many gods, that
the material world never had a beginning or cause, and
that the course of events was one of blind and fatal
necessity, not regulated by the will of divine Provi-
dence.

But the learned men whom We call apologists speedily
encountered these teachers of foolish doctrine, and, under
the guidance of faith, found arguments in human wisdom
also to prove that one God, who stands pre-eminent in
every kind of perfection, is to be worshipped; that all
things were created from nothing by His omnipotent
power; that by His wisdom they flourish and serve each
their own special purposes. Among these St. Justin
Martyr claims the chief place. After having tried the
most celebrated academies of the Greeks, he saw clearly,
as he himself confesses, that he could only draw truths
in their fulness from the doctrines of revelation. These
he embraced with all the ardor of his soul, purged of cal-
umny, courageously and fully defended before the Roman
emperors, and reconciled with them not a few of the say-
ings of the Greek philosophers,

Quadratus also and Aristides, Hermias and Athenagoras,
stood nobly forth in that time. Nor did Irenseus, the
invincible martyr and bishop of Lyons, win less glory
in the same cause when, forcibly refuting the perverse
opinions of the Orientals, the work of the Gnostics, scat-
tered broadcast over the territories of the Roman Empire,
he explained (according to Jerome) the origin of each

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 45

heresy and in what philosophic source it took its rise.*
But who knows not the disputations of Clement of Alex-
andria, which the same Jerome thus honorably com-
memorates: "What is there in them that is not learned,
and what that is not of the very heart of philosophy?'"
He himself, indeed, with marvellous versatility treated
of many things of the greatest utility for preparing a
history of philosophy, for the exercise of the dialectic
art, and for showing the agreement between reason and
faith. After him came Origen, who graced the chair of
the school of Alexandria, and was most learned in the
teachings of the Greeks and Orientals. He pubUshed
many volumes, involving great labor, which were wonder-
fully adapted to explain the divine writings and illustr'ate
the sacred dogmas; which, though, as they now stand,
not altogether free from error, contain nevertheless a
wealth of knowledge tending to the growth and advance
of natural truths. Tertullian opposes heretics with the
authority of the sacred writings; with the philosophers
he changes his fence and disputes philosophically; but
so learnedly and accurately did he confute them that he
made bold to say, "Neither in science nor in schooling
are we equals, as you imagine." ^ Arnobius also, in his
works against the pagans, and Lactantius in the divine
Institutions especially, with equal eloquence and strength
strenuously strive to move men to accept the dogmas and
precepts of Catholic wisdom, not by philosophic juggling,
after the fashion of the academicians,* but vanquishing
them partly by their own arms, and partly by arguments
drawn from the mutual contentions of the philosophers.^
But the writings on the human soul, the divine attributes,
and other questions of mighty moment which the great
Athanasius and Chrysostom, the prince of orators, have
left behind them are, by common consent, so supremely
excellent that it seems scarcely anything could be added

^ Epist. ad Magn. ' Apologet., § 46. * De opit Dei, cap. 21.
* Loc. cit. * Inst. ^^i. cap. 7.

46 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

to their subtlety and fulness. And, not to cover too wide
a range, we add to the number of the great men of whom
mention has been made the names of Basil the Great and
of the two Gregories, who, on going forth from Athens,
that home of all learning, thoroughly equipped with all
the harness of philosophy, turned the wealth of knowledge
which each had gathered up in a course of zealous study
to the work of refuting heretics and preparing Christians.

But Augustine would seem to have wrested the palm
from all. Of a most powerful genius and thoroughly
saturated with sacred and profane learning, with the
loftiest faith and with equal knowledge, he combated
most vigorously all the errors of his age. What height
of philosophy did he not reach? What region of it did
he not diligently explore, either in expounding the loftiest
mysteries of the faith to the faithful, or defending them
against the fell onslaught of adversaries, or again when,
in demolishing the fables of the academicians or the
Manichseans, he laid the safe foundations and sure struc-
ture of human science, or followed up the reason, origin,
and causes of the evils that afflict man? How subtly he
reasoned on the angels, the soul, the human mind, the
will and free choice, on rehgion and the Hfe of the blessed,
on time and eternity, and even on the very nature of
changeable bodies. Afterwards, in the East John Dama-
scene treading in the footsteps of Basil and of Gregory'-
Nazianzen, and in the West Boetius and Ansehn following
the doctrines of Augustine, added largely to the patrimony
of philosophy.

Later on the doctors of the middle ages, who are called
scholastics, addressed themselves to a great work — that
of dihgently collecting, and sifting, and storing up, as it
were, in one place, for the use and convenience of posterity
the rich and fertile harvests of Christian learning scattered
abroad in the voluminous works of the holy Fathers.
And with regard, Venerable Brethren, to the origin, drift,
and excellence of this scholastic learning, it may be well

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 47

here to speak more fully in the words of one of the wisest
of Our predecessors, Sixtus V.: "By the divine favor of
Him who alone gives the spirit of science, and wisdom,
and understanding, and who through all ages, as there
may be need, enriches His Church with new blessings
and strengthens it with new safeguards, there was founded
by Our fathers, men of eminent wisdom, the scholastic
theology, which two glorious doctors in particular, the
angelic St. Thomas and the seraphic St. Bonaventure,
illustrious teachers of this faculty, . . . with surpassing
genius, by unwearied dihgence, and at the cost of long
labors and vigils, set in order and beautified, and, when
skilfully arranged and clearly explained in a variety of
ways, handed down to posterity.

"And, indeed, the knowledge and use of so salutary
a science, which flows from the fertilizing founts of the
sacred writings, the Sovereign Pontiffs, the holy Fathers
and the councils, must always be of the greatest assistance
to the Church, whether with the view of reaUy and soundly
imderstanding and interpreting the Scriptures, or more
safely and to better purpose reading and explaining the
Fathers, or for exposing and refuting the various errors
and heresies ; and in these late days, when those dangerous
times described by the apostle are already upon us, when
the blasphemers, the proud, and the seducers go from
bad to worse, erring themselves and causing others to
err, there is surely a very great need of confirming the
dogmas of Cathohc faith and confuting heresies," ^

Although these words seem to bear reference solely to
scholastic theology, nevertheless they may plainly be
accepted as equally true of philosophy and its praises.
For the noble endowments which make the scholastic
theology so formidable to the enemies of truth— ^to wit,
as the same pontiff adds, "that ready and close coherence
of cause and effect, that order and array as of a disciplined

^ Bulla Triumphantb, an. 1588.

48 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

army in battle, those clear definitions and distinctions,
that strength of argument and those keen discussions, by
which light is distinguished from darkness, the true from
the false, expose and strip naked, as it were, the falsehoods
of heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges and
fallacies" * — those noble and admirable endowments. We
say, are only to be found in a right use of that philosophy
which the scholastic teachers have been accustomed
carefully and prudently to make use of even in theological
disputations. Moreover, since it is the proper and special
office of the scholastic theologians to bind together by
the fastest chain human and divine science, surely the
theology in which they excelled would not have gained
such honor and commendation among men if they
had made use of a lame and imperfect or vain phi-
losophy.

Among the scholastic doctors, the chief and master of
all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, as Cajetan observes,
oecause "he most venerated the ancient doctors of the
Church, in a certain way seems to have inherited the
intellect of all." ^ The doctrines of those illustrious men,
like the scattered members of a body, Thomas collected
together and cemented, distributed in wonderful order,
and so increased with important additions that he is
rightly and deservedly esteemed the special bulwark
and glory of the Catholic faith. With his spirit at once
humble and swift, his memory ready and tenacious, his
life spotless throughout, a lover of truth for its own sake,
richly endowed with human and divine science, hke the
sun he heated the world with the ardor of his virtues and
filled it with the splendor of his teaching. Pliilosophy
has no part which he did not touch finely at once and
thoroughly; on the laws of reasoning, on God and in^
corporeal substances, on man and other sensible things,
on human actions and their principles, he reasoned in

» Bull. cit. ' In 2m. 2se. q. 148, a. 4, in fin.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 49

such a manner that in him there is wanting neither a full
array of questions, nor an apt disposal of the various
parts, nor the best method of proceeding, nor soundness
of principles or strength of argument, nor clearness and
elegance of style, nor a faciUty for explaining what is
abstruse.

Moreover, the Angelic Doctor pushed his philosophic
conclusions into the reasons and principles of the things
which are most comprehensive and contain in their bosom,
so to say, the seeds of almost infinite truths, to be unfolded
in good time by later masters and with a goodly yield.
And as he also used this philosophic method in the refuta-
tion of error, he won this title to distinction for himself:
that single-handed he victoriously combated the errors of
former times, and supplied invincible arms to put those to
rout which might in after-times spring up. Again, clearly
distinguishing, as is fitting, reason from faith, while
happily associating the one with the other, he both pre-
served the rights and had regard for the dignity of each;
io much so, indeed, that reason, borne on the wings of
Thomas to its human height, can scarcely rise higher,
wliile faith could scarcely expect more or stronger aids
from reason than those which she has already obtained
through Thomas.

For these reasons learned men, in former ages especially,
of the highest repute in theology and philosophy, after
mastering with infinite pains the immortal works of
Thomas, gave themselves up not so much to be in-
structed in his angelic wisdom as to be nourished upon
it. It is known that nearly all the founders and framers
of laws of the religious orders commanded their associates
to study and religiously adhere to the teachings of St.
Thomas, fearful lest any of them should swerve even in
the sUghtest degree from the footsteps of so great a man.
To say nothing of the family of St. Dominic, which rightly
claims this great teacher for its own glory, the statutes of
the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Augustinians, the

50 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

Society of Jesus, and many others, all testify that they
are bound by this law.

And here how pleasantly one's thoughts fly back to
those celebrated schools and academies which flourished
of old in Europe — to Paris, Salamanca, Alcala, to
Douay, Toulouse, and Louvain, to Padua and Bologna,
to Naples and Coimbra, and to many another! All know
how the fame of these seats of learning grew with their
years, and that their judgment, often asked in matters
of grave moment, held great weight everywhere. And
we know how in those great homes of human wis-
dom, as in his own kingdom, Thomas reigned supreme;
and that the minds of all, of teachers as well as of taught,
rested in wonderful harmony under the shield and au-
thority of the Angelic Doctor.

But, furthermore. Our predecessors in the Roman
pontificate have celebrated the wisdom of Thomas Aquinas
by exceptional tributes of praise and the most ample
testimonials. Clement VI,,* Nicholas V.,^ Benedict XIII.,'
and others bear witness that the universal Church
borrows lustre from his admirable teaching; while St.
Pius v.* confesses that heresies, confounded and con-
victed by the same teaching, were dissipated, and the
whole world daily freed from fatal errors; others affirm
with Clement XII.^ that most fruitful blessings have
spread abroad from his writings over the whole Church,
and that he is worthy of the honor which is bestowed on
the greatest doctors of the Church, on Gregory and Am-
brose, Augustine and Jerome; while others have not
hesitated to propose St. Thomas for the exemplar and
master of the academies and great lyceums, whom they
may follow with unfaltering feet. On which point the
words of Blessed Urban V. to the Academy of Toulouse
are worthy of recall: "It is our will, which we hereby
enjoin upon you, that ye follow the teaching of Blessed

' Bulla In Ordine. ' Breve ad FF. Ord. Praedic, 1461.

» Bulla Pretiosus. * Bulla Mirabilis. * Bulla Verbo DeL

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 51

Thomas as the true and Catholic doctrine, and that ye
labor with all your force to profit by the same." ^ Inno-
cent XII. ^ followed the example of Urban in the case of
the University of Louvain, and Benedict XIV.' with the
Dionysian College of Granada; while to these judgments
of great Pontiffs on Thomas Aquinas comes the crowning
testimony of Innocent VI.: "His teaching above that of
others, the canons alone excepted, enjoys such an elegance
of phraseology, a method of statement, a truth of proposi-
tion, that those who hold to it are never found swerving
from the path of truth, and he who dare assail it will
always be suspected of error." *

The oecumenical councils also, where blossoms the
flower of all earthly wisdom, have always been careful to
hold Thomas Aquinas in singular honor. In the councils
of Lyons, Vienna, Florence, and the Vatican one might
almost say that Thomas took part and presided over the
deliberations and decrees of the Fathers, contending
against the errors of the Greeks, of heretics and rationaKsts,
with invincible force and with the happiest results. But
the chief and special glory of Thomas, one which he has
shared with none of the Catholic doctors, is that the
Fathers of Trent made it part of the order of the conclave
to lay upon the altar, together with the code of sacred
Scripture and the decrees of the Supreme Pontiffs, the
Summa of Thomas Aquinas, whence to seek counsel,
reason, and inspiration.

A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable
man — namely, to compel the homage, praise, and ad-
miration of even the very enemies of the Cathohc name.
For it has come to light that there were not lacking among
the leaders of heretical sects some who openly declared
that, if the teaching of Thomas Aquinas were only taken

» Const. 5a. dat. die 3 Aug. 1368 ad CancelL Univ. Tolos.
* Litt. in form Brev., die 6 Feb. 1694.
•Ibid., die 21 Aug. 1752.
*Serm. de St. Thorn.

62 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY

away they could easily battle with all Catholic teachers,
gain the victory, and abolish the Church.^ A vain hope
indeed, but no vain testimony.

Therefore, Venerable Brethem, as often as We con-
template the good, the force, and the singular advantages
to be derived from this system of pMlosophy which Our
Fathers so dearly loved. We think it hazardous that its
special honor should not always and everywhere remain,
especially when it is established that daily experience,
and the judgment of the greatest men, and, to cro^^^l all,
the voice of the Church, have favored the scholastic
philosophy. Moreover, to the old teaching a novel system
of philosophy has succeeded here and there, in which We
fail to perceive those desirable and wholesome fruits
which the Church and civil society itself would prefer.
For it pleased the struggling innovators of the sixteenth
century to philosophize without any respect for faith,
the power of inventing in accordance with his own pleasure
and bent being asked and given in turn by each one.
Hence it was natural that systems of philosophy multiplied
beyond measure, and conclusions differing and clashing
one with another arose about those matters even which
are the most important in human knowledge. From
a mass of conclusions men often come to wavering and
doubt; and who knows not how easily the mind slips
from doubt to error? But as men are apt to follow the
lead given them, this new pursuit seems to have caught
the souls of certain Catholic philosophers,, who, throwing
aside the patrimony of ancient wisdom, chose rather to
build up a new edifice than to strengthen and complete
the old by aid of the new — ^ill-advisedly, in sooth, and
not without detriment to the sciences. For a multiform
system of this kind, which depends on the authority and
choice of any professor, has a foundation open to change,
and consequently gives us a philosophy not firm, and

' Beza — Bucerus.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 53

stable, and robust like that of old, but tottering and feeble.
And if perchance it sometimes finds itself scarcely equal
to sustain the shock of its foes, it should recognize that
the cause and the blame he in itself. In saying this We
have no intention of discountenancing the learned and
able men who bring their industry and erudition, and,
what is more, the wealth of new discoveries, to the ser-
vice of philosophy; for, of course. We understand that
this tends to the development of learning. But one should
be very careful lest all or his chief labor be exhausted in
these pursuits and in mere erudition. And the same
thing is true of sacred theology, which, indeed, may
be assisted and illustrated by all kinds of erudition, though
it is absolutely necessary to approach it in the grave
manner of the scholastics, in order that, the forces of
revelation and reason being united in it, it may con-
tinue to be "the invincible bulwark of the faith."*

With wise forethought, therefoer, not a few of the ad-
vocates of philosophic studies, when turning their minds
recently to the practical reform of philosophy, aimed and
aim at restoring the renowned teaching of Thomas Aquinas
and winning it back to its ancient beauty.

We have learned with great joy that many members
of your order, Venerable Brethren, have taken this plan
to heart; and while We earnestly commend their efforts,
We exhort them to hold fast to their purpose, and remind
each and all of you that Our first and most cherished idea
is that you should all furnish a generous and copious
supply to studious youth of those crystal rills of wisdom
flowing in a never-ending and fertiUzing stream from
the fountain-head of the Angehc Doctor.

Many are the reasons why We are so desirous of this.
In the first place, then, since in the tempest that is on
us the Christian faith is being constantly assailed by the
machinations and craft of a certain false wisdom, all

» Sixtus v., BuU. cii

54 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

youths, but especially those who are the growing hope
of the Church, should be nourished on the strong and
robust food of doctrine, that so, mighty in strength and
armed at all points, they may become habituated to
advance the cause of religion with force and judgment,
"being ready always, according to the apostoUc counsel,
to satisfy every one that asketh you a reason of that hope
which is in you," ^ and that they may be able to exhort
in sound doctrine and to convince the gainsayers.' Many
of those who, with minds ahenated from the faith, hate
Cathohc institutions, claim reason as their sole mistress and
guide. Now, We thuik that, apart from the supernatural
help of God, nothing is better calculated to heal those
minds and to bring them into favor with the Catholic
faith than the solid doctrine of the Fathers and the scholas-
tics, who so clearly and forcibly demonstrate the firm
foundations of the faith, its divine origin, its certain truth,
the arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred
on the human race, and its perfect accord with reason, in
a manner to satisfy completely minds open to persuasion,
however unwilling and repugnant.

Domestic and civil society even, wliich, as all see,
is exposed to great danger from this plague of perveree
opinions, would certainly enjoy a far more peaceful and
secure existence if a more wholesome doctrine were taught
in the academies and schools — one more in conformity
with the teaching of the Church, such as is contained in
the works of Thomas Aquinas.

For the teachings of Thomas on the true meaning of
liberty, which at this time is running into license, on the
divine origin of all authority, on laws and their force,
on the paternal and just rule of princes, on obedience
to the higher powers, on mutual charity one towards
another — on all of these and kindred subjects have very
great and invincible force to overturn those principles of

» 1 Peter iii. 15. ' Tit. L 9.

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 56

the new order which are well known to be dangerous to the
peaceful order of things and to public safety. In short,
all studies ought to find hope of advancement and promise
of assistance in this restoration of philosophic discipline
which We have proposed. The arts were wont to draw
from philosophy, as from a wise mistress, sound judgment
and right method, and from it also their spirit as from
the common fount of life. When philosophy stood stain-
less in honor and wise in judgment, then, as facts and
constant experience showed, the liberal arts flourished as
never before or since; but, neglected and almost blotted
out, they lay prone since philosophy began to lean to
error and join hands with folly. Nor will the physical
sciences, which are now in such great repute, and by the
renown of so many inventions draw such universal ad-
miration to themselves, suffer detriment but find very
great assistance in the re-establishment of the ancient
philosophy. For the investigation of facts and the con-
templation of nature is not alone sufficient for their profit-
able exercise and advance; but when facts have been
estabhshed it is necessary to rise and apply ourselves
to the study of the nature of corporeal things, to inquire
into the laws which govern them and the principles whence
their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in
diversity arise. To such investigations it is wonderful
what force and light and aid the scholastic philosophy,
if judiciously taught, would bring.

And here it is well to note that Our philosophy can
only by the grossest injustice be accused of being opposed
to the advance and development of natural science. For
when the scholastics, following the opinion of the holy
Fathers, always held in anthropology that the human
intelKgence is only led to the knowledge of things without
body and matter by things sensible, they well understood
that nothing was of greater use to the philosopher than
dihgently to search into the mysteries of nature and to
be earnest and constant in the study of physical things.

56 THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY.

And this they confirmed by their own example; for St.
Thomas, Blessed Albertus Magnus, and other leaders
of the scholastics were never so wholly rapt in the study
of philosophy as not to give large attention to the knowl-
edge of natural things; and, indeed, the number of their
sayings and writings on these subjects, which recent
professors approve of and admit to harmonize with truth,
is by no means small. Moreover, in this very age many
illustrious professors of the physical sciences openly
testify that between certain and accepted conclusions
of modern physics and the philosophic principles of the
schools there is no conflict worthy of the name.

While, therefore, We hold that every word of wisdom,
every useful thing by whomsoever discovered or planned,
ought to be received with a wilUng and grateful mind.
We exhort you. Venerable Brethren, in all earnestness
to restore the golden wisdom of St. Thomas, and, to spread
it far and wide for the defence and beauty of the CathoUc
faith, for the good of society, and for the advantage of
all the sciences. The wisdom of St. Thomas, We say;
for if anything is taken up with too great subtlety by
the scholastic doctors, or too carelessly stated — if there
be anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later
age, or, in a word, improbable in whatever way, it does
not enter Our mind to propose that for imitation to Our
age. Let carefully selected teachers endeavor to implant
the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas in the minds of students,
and set forth clearly his solidity and excellence over
others. Let the academies already founded or to be
founded by you illustrate and defend this doctrine, and
use it for the refutation of prevailing errore. But, lest
the false for the true or the corrupt for the pure be drunk
in, be ye watchful that the doctrine of Thomas be drawn
from his own fountains, or at least from those rivulets
which derived from the very fount, have thus far flowed,
according to the estabUshed agreement of learned men,
pure and clear; be careful to guard the minds of youth

THE STUDY OF SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 57

from those which are said to flow thence, but in reality
are gathered from strange and unwholesome streams.

But well do We know that vain will be Our efforts
unless, Venerable Brethren, He helps Our common cause
who, in the words of divine Scripture, is called the God
of all knowledge;^ by which we are also admonished
that "every best gift and every perfect gift is from above,
coming down from the Father of lights";^ and again:
"If any of you want wisdom, let Mm ask of God, who
giveth to all men abundantly, and upbraideth not: and
it shall be given him," '

Therefore in this also let us follow the example of the
Angelic Doctor, who never gave himself to reading or
writing without first begging the blessing of God, who
modestly confessed that whatever he knew he had ac-
quired not so much by his own study and labor as by the
divine gift; and therefore let us all, in humble and united
prayer, beseech God to send forth the spirit of knowledge
and of understanding to the children of the Churchy and
open their senses for the understanding of wisdom. And
that we may receive fuller fruits of the divine goodness,
offer up to God the most efficacious patronage of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, who is called the seat of wisdom;
having at the same time as advocates St. Joseph, the
most chaste spouse of the Virgin, and Peter and Paul,
the chiefs of the apostles, whose truth renewed the earth,
which had fallen under the impure blight of error, filling it
with the light of heavenly wisdom.

In fine, relying on the divine assistance and confiding
in your pastoral zeal, We bestow on all of you. Venerable
Brethren, on all the clergy and the flocks committed
to your charge, the apostolic benediction as a pledge of
heavenly gifts and a token of Our special esteem.

* 1 Kings ii. 3. * James i. 17. » Ibid. i. 5.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.
Encyclical Letter Arcanum Divines, February 10, 1880.

The hidden design of the divine wisdom, which Jesus
Christ the Saviour of men came to carry out on earth, had
this end in view, that, by Himself and in Himself, He
should divinely renew the world, which was sinking as it
were, with length of years, into decline. The Apostle Paul
summed this up in words of dignity and majesty when he
wrote to the Ephesians, thus: That He might make knovm
unto us the mystery of His will . . . to re-establish all
things in Christ that are in heaven and on earth}

In truth, Christ our Lord, setting Himself to fulfil the
conmiandment which His Father had given Him, straight-
way imparted a new form and fresh beauty to all things,
taking away the effects of their time-worn age. For He
healed the wounds which the sin of our first father had
inflicted on the human race ; He brought all men, by nature
children of wrath, into favor with God ; He led to the fight
of truth men wearied out by long-standing errors; He
renewed to every -vartue those who were weakened by law-
lessness of every kind ; and, giving them again an inheri-
tance of never-ending bliss, He added a sure hope that
their mortal and perishable bodies should one day be
partakers of immortality and of the glory of heaven. In
order that these unparalleled benefits might last as long
as men should be found on earth, He trusted to His Church
the continuance of His work ; and, looking to future times,

> Ephes. i. 9, 10.
58

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 59

He commanded her to set in order whatever might have
become deranged in human society, and to restore what-
ever might have fallen into ruin.

Although the divine renewal we have spoken of chiefly
and directly affected men as constituted in the super-
natural order of grace, nevertheless some of its precious
and salutary fruits were also bestowed abundantly in the
order of nature. Hence not only individual men, but also
the whole mass of the human race, have in every respect
received no small degree of worthiness. For, so soon as
Christian order was once established in the world, it
became happily possible for all men, one by one, to learn
what God's fatherly providence is, and to dwell in it
habitually, thereby fostering that hope of heavenly help
which never confoundeth. From all this outflowed
fortitude, self-control, constancy, and the evenness of a
peaceful mind, together with many high virtues and noble
deeds.

Wondrous, indeed, was the extent of dignity, steadfast-
ness, and goodness which thus accrued to the State as well
as to the family. The authority of rulers became more
just and revered; the obedience of the people more ready
and unforced; the union of citizens closer; the rights of
dominion more secure. In very truth, the Christian
religion thought of and provided for all things which are
held to be advantageous in a State; so much so indeed
that, according to St. Augustine, one cannot see how it
could have offered greater help in the matter of living
well and happily, had it been instituted for the single
object of procuring or increasing those things which con-
tribute to the conveniences or advantages of this mortal
life.

Still the purpose We have set before Us is not to re-
count, in detail, benefits of this kind; Our wish is rather
to speak about that family union of which marriage is
the beginning and the foundation.

The true origin of marriage, ^'enerable Brothers, is

60 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

well known to all. Though the revilers of the Christian
faith refuse to acknowledge the never-interrupted doctrine
of the Church on this subject, and have long striven
to destroy the testimony of all nations and of all times,
they have nevertheless failed not only to quench the
powerful light of truth, but even to lessen it. We record
what is to all known, and cannot be doubted by any, that
God, on the sixth day of creation, having made man from
the shme of the earth, and having breathed into his face
the breath of life, gave him a companion, whom He miracu-
lously took from the side of Adam when he was locked
in sleep. God thus, in His most far-reaching foresight,
decreed that this husband and wife should be the natural
beginning of the human race, from whom it might be
propagated and preserved by an unfailing fruitfulness
throughout all futurity of time. And this union of man
and woman, that it might answer more fittingly to the
infinitely wise counsels of God, even from that beginning
manifested chiefly two most excellent properties — deeply
sealed, at it were, and signed upon it — namely, unity and
perpetuity. From the Gospel we see clearly that this
doctrine was declared and openly confirmed by the divine
authority of Jesus Christ. He bore witness to the Jews
and to His apostles that marriage, from its institution,
should exist between two only, that is, between one man
and one woman; that of two they are made, so to say,
one flesh; and that the marriage bond is by the will of
God so closely and strongly made fast that no man may
dissolve it or render it asunder. For this cause shall a
man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his xiyife,
and they two shall be in one flesh. Therefore now they
are not two, hut one flesh. What, therefore, God hath joined
together, let no man put asunder.^

This form of marriage, however, so excellent and so
pre-eminent, began to be corrupted by degrees, and to

> Matt. xix. 5. 6.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 61

disappear among the heathen; and became even among
the Jewish race clouded in a measure and obscured.
For in their midst a common custom was gradually intro-
duced, by which it was accounted as lawful for a man to
have more than one wife; and eventually when by reason
of the hardness of their heart,^ Moses indulgently permitted
them to put away their wives, the way was open to di-
vorce.

But the corruption and change which fell on marriage
among the Gentiles seem almost incredible, inasmuch
as it was exposed in every land to floods of error and of
the most shameful lusts. All nations seem, more or less,
to have forgotten the true notion and origin of marriage;
and thus everywhere laws were enacted with reference
to marriage, prompted to all appearance by State reasons,
but not such as nature required. Solemn rites, invented
at will of the lawgivers, brought about that women should,
as might be, bear either the honorable name of wife or
the disgraceful name of concubine; and things came to
such a pitch that permission to marry, or the refusal
of the permission, depended on the will of the heads of
the State, whose laws were greatly against equity or even
to the highest degree unjust. Moreover, plurality of
wives and husbands, the abounding source of divorces,
caused the nuptial bond to be relaxed exceedingly. Hence,
too, sprang up the greatest confusion as to the mutual
rights and duties of husbands and wives, inasmuch as a
man assumed right of dominion over his wife, ordering
her to go about her business, often without any just
cause; while he was himself at liberty (as St. Jerome
says) "to run headlong with impunity into lust, un-
bridled and imrestrained, in houses of ill-fame and amongst
his female slaves, as if the dignity of the persons sinned
with, and not the will of the sinner, made the guilt." '
When the licentiousness of a husband thus showed itseK,

» Matt. xix. 8. * Op. torn. i. col. 455.

62 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

nothing could be more piteous than the wife, sunk so low
as to be all but reckoned as a means for the gratification
of passion, or for the production of offspring. Without
any feeling of shame marriageable girls were bought and
sold, just hke so much merchandise;^ and power was
sometimes given to the father and to the husband to
inflict capital punishment on the wife. Of necessity the
offspring of such marriages as these were either reckoned
among the stock' in trade of the commonwealth or held
to be the property of the father of the family;' and the
law permitted him to make and unmake the marriages
of his children at his mere will, and even to exercise against
them the monstrous power of life and death.

So manifold being the vices and so great the ignominies
with which marriage was defiled, an alleviation and a
remedy were at length bestowed from on high. Jesus
Christ, who restored our human dignity and who per-
fected the Mosaic law, applied early in His ministry no
little solicitude to the question of marriage. He ennobled
the marriage in Cana of Galilee by His presence, and made
it memorable by the first of the miracles which He wrought ;'
and for this reason, even from that day forth, it seemed
as if the beginnings of new holiness had been conferred
on human marriages. Later on He brought back matri-
mony to the nobility of its primeval origin, by condemn-
ing the customs of the Jews in their abuse of the plurality
of wives and of the power of giving bills of divorce; and
still more by commanding most strictly that no one
should dare to dissolve that union which God Himself
had sanctioned by a bond perpetual. Hence, having
set aside the difficulties which were adduced from the
law of Moses, He, in character of supreme Lawgiver,
decreed as follows concerning husbands and wives: /
say to you, that whosoever shall -put away his wife, except
it be for fornication, and shall marry another, committetb

* Amob. adv. (Jent. 4. ^ Dionys. Halicar. lib. ii. cc. 26, 27.
' John ii.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 63

adultery; and he that shall marry her that is put away
committeth adultery}

But what was decreed and constituted in respect to
marriage by the authority of God, has been more fully
and more clearly handed down to us, by tradition and the
written Word, through the apostles, those heralds of the
laws of God. To the apostles, indeed, as our masters,
are to be referred the doctrines which our holy Fathers,
the Councils, and the Tradition of the Universal Church
have always taught,^ namely, that Christ our Lord raised
marriage to the dignity of a sacrament; that to husband
and wife, guarded and strengthened by the heavenly grace
which His merits gained for them. He gave power to
attain hohness in the married state; and that, in a won-
drous way, making marriage an example of the mystical
imion between Himself and His Church, He not only per-
fected that love which is according to nature,^ but also made
the natural union of one man with one woman far more
perfect through the bond of heavenly love. Paul says to
the Ephesians: Husbands, love your wives, as Christ also
loved the Church, and delivered Himself up for it, that He
might sanctify it. . . . So also ought men to love their
wives as their own bodies. . . . For no man ever hated his
own flesh, but nourisheth and cherisheth it, as also Christ
doth the Church; because we are members of His body, of
His flesh, and of His bones. For this cause shall a man
leave His father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and
they shall be two in one flesh. This is a great sacrament;
but I speak in Christ and in the Church.* In like manner
from the teaching of the apostles we learn that the unity
of marriage and its perpetual indissolubility, the indis-
pensable conditions of its very origin, must, according to
the command of Christ, be holy and inviolable without
exception. Paul says again: To them that are married,
not I, but the Lord commandeth that the wife depart not

* Matt. 3dx. 9. ' Trid. sess. xxiv. cap. i. de reform, matr.

' Trid. sess. xadv. in pr. ♦ Eph. v. 25-32.

64 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

from her husband; and if she depart, that she remain un-
married or be reconciled to her husband} And again: A
woman is bound by the law as long as her husband liveth; but
if her husband die, she is at liberty."^ It is for these reasons
that marriage is a great sacrament;^ honorable in all;* holy,
pure, and to be reverenced as a type and symbol of most
high mysteries.

Furthermore, the Christian perfection and complete-
ness of maraage are not comprised in those points only
which have been mentioned.

For, first, there has been vouchsafed to the marriage
union a higher and nobler purpose than was ever previously
given to it. By the command of Christ, it not only looks
to the propagation of the human race, but to the bringing
forth of children for the Church, fellow-citizens with the
saints, and the domestics of God;^ so that a people might be
born and brought up for the worship and religion of the
true God and our Saviour Jesus Christ}^

Secondly, the mutual duties of husband and wife have
been defined, and their several rights accurately estab-
lished. They are bound, namely, to have such feehngs
for one another as to cherish always very great mutual
love, to be ever faithful to their marriage vow, and to
give one another an unfailing and unselfish help. The
husband is the chief of the family and the head of the
wife. The woman, because she is flesh of his flesh, and
bone of his bone, must be subject to her husband and
obey him; not, indeed, as a servant, but as a com-
panion, so that her obedience shall be wanting in neither
honor nor dignity. Since the husband represents Christ,
and since the wife represents the Church, let there
always be, both in him who commands and in her who
obeys, a heaven-bom love guiding both in their respec-
tive duties. For the husband is the head of the wife;
as Christ is the head of the Church. . . . Therefore, as the

> 1 Zor. vii. 10, 11. » Eph. v. 32. « Eph. ii. 19.

* 1 Cor. Adi. 39. * Heb. xiii. 4. • Catech. Rom. c. viii.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 65

Church is subject to Christ, so also let wives be to their hus-
bands in all things}

As regards children, they ought to submit to the parents
and obey them, and give them honor for conscience'
sake ; while, on the other hand, parents are boimd to give
all care and watchful thought to the education of their
offspring and their virtuous bringing up: Fathers, . . .
bring them up (that is, your children) in the discipline and
correction of the Lord? From this we see clearly that the
duties of husbands and wives are neither few nor hght;
although to married people who are good these burdens
become not only bearable but agreeable, owing to the
strength which they gain through the sacrament.

Christ, therefore,. having renewed marriage to such and
so great excellence, commended and entrusted all the dis-
cipline bearing upon these matters to his Church. The
Church, always and everywhere, has so used her power
with reference to the marriages of Christians, that men
have seen clearly how it belongs to her as of native right;
not being made hers by any human grant, but given
divinely to her by the will of her Founder. Her constant
and watchful care in guarding Marriage, by the preserva-
tion of its sanctity, is so well imderstood as to not need
proof. That the judgment of the Council of Jerusalem
reprobated Ucentious and free love,^ we all know; as also
that the incestuous Corinthian was condemned by the
authority of blessed Paul.* Again, in the very beginning
of the Christian Church were repulsed and defeated, with
the like unremitting determination, the efforts of many who
aimed at the destruction of Christian marriage, such as
the Gnostics, Manicheans, and Montanists; and in our
own time Mormons, St. Simonians, Phalansterians, and
Commimists.

In like manner, moreover, a law of marriage just to all,
and the same for all, was enacted by the abolition of the

^Eph. V. 23, 24. 3 Actg ^^ 29.

» Ibid. vi. 4. * 1 Cor. v. 5.

66 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

old distinction between slaves and free-bom men and
women; and thus the rights of husbands and wives were
made equal: for, as St. Jerome says, "with us that which
is unlawful for women is unlawful for men also, and the
same restraint is imposed on equal conditions." ^ The
self-same rights also were firmly established for reciprocal
affection and for the interchange of duties; the dignity of
the woman was asserted and assured ; and it was forbidden
to the man to inflict capital punishment for adultery, or
lustfully and shamelessly to violate his pHghted faith.

It is also a great blessing that the Church has limited,
so far as is needful, the power of fathers of families,
so that sons and daughters, wishing to marry, are not in
any way deprived of their rightful freedom; that, for the
purpose of spreading more widely the supernatural love of
husbands and wives, she has decreed marriages within
certain degrees of consanguinity or affinity to be null and
void; that she has taken the greatest pains to safeguard
marriage, as much as is possible, from error and violence
and deceit; that she has always wished to preserve the
holy chasteness of the marriage bed, personal rights, the
honor of husband and wife, and the security of religion.

Lastly, with such power and with such foresight of
legislation has the Church guarded its divine institution,
that no one who thinks rightfully of these matters can fail
to see how, with regard to marriage, she is the best guard-
ian and defender of the human race ; and how withal her
wisdom has come forth victorious from the lapse of years,
from the assaults of men, and from the countless changes
of public events.

Yet, owing to the efforts of the arch-enemy of mankind,
there are persons who, thanklessly casting away so many
other blessings of redemption, despise also or utterly ignore
the restoration of marriage to its original perfection. It
is the reproach of some of the ancients that they showed

' Oper. torn. 1 col 455.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 67

themselves the enemies of marriage in many ways; but
in our own age, much more pernicious is the sin of those
who would fain pervert utterly the nature of marriage,
perfect though it is, and complete in all its details and
parts. The chief reason why they act in this way is
because very many, imbued with the maxims of a false
philosophy and corrupted in morals, judge nothing so
unbearable as submission and obedience; and strive with
all their might to bring about that not only individual
men, but families also, nay indeed, human society itself,
may in haughty pride despise the sovereignty of God.

Now since the family and human society at large spring
from marriage, these men will on no account allow matri-
mony to be the subject of the jurisdiction of the Church.
Nay, they endeavor to deprive it of all holiness, and so
bring it within the contracted sphere of those rights which,
having been instituted by man, are ruled and administered
by the civil jurisprudence of the community. Wherefore
it necessarily follows that they attribute all power over
marriage to civil rulers, and allow none whatever to the
Church; and when the Church exercises any such power,
they think that she acts either by favor of the civil author-
ity or to its injury. Now is the time, they say, for the
heads of the State to vindicate their rights unflinchingly,
and to do their best to settle all that relates to marriage
according as to them seems good.

Hence are owing civil marriages, commonly so called;
hence laws are framed which impose impediments to mar-
riage; hence arise judicial sentences affecting the marriage
contract, as to whether or not it have been rightly made.
Lastly, all power of prescribing and passing judgment in
this class of cases is, as we see, of set purpose denied to the
Catholic Church, so that no regard is paid either to her
divine power or to her prudent laws. Yet under these,
for so many centuries, have the nations lived on whom the
light of civihzation shone bright with the wisdom of
Christ Jesus.

68 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

Nevertheless, all those who reject what is supernatural,
as well as all who profess that they worship above all
things the divinity of the State, and strive to disturb
whole communities with such wicked doctrines, cannot
escape the charge of delusion. Marriage has God for its
Author, and was from the very beginning a kind of
foreshadowing of the Incarnation of His Son; and there-
fore there abides in it a something holy and rehg-
ious; not extraneous, but innate; not derived from
men, but implanted by nature. Innocent III., there-
fore, and Honorius III., our predecessors, affirmed not
falsely nor rashly that a certain sacredness of marriage
rites existed ever amongst the faithful and unbelievers.*
We call to witness the monuments of antiquity, as
also the manners and customs of those people who,
being the most civihzed, had the greatest knowledge
of law and equity. In the minds of all of them it was
a fixed and foregone conclusion that, when marriage
was thought of, it was thought of as conjoined with re-
ligion and holiness. Hence among those, marriages were
commonly celebrated with religious ceremonies, under
the authority of pontiffs, and with the ministry of priests.
So mighty, even in the souls ignorant of heavenly doctrine,
was the force of nature, of the remembrance of their origin,
and of the conscience of the human race. As, then, mar-
riage is holy by its own power, in its own nature, and of
itself, it ought not to be regulated and administered by
the will of civil rulers, but by the divine authority of the
Church, which alone in sacred matters professes the office
of teaching.

Next, the dignity of the sacrament must be considered ;
for through addition of the sacrament the marriages of
Christians have become far the noblest of all matrimonial
unions. But to decree and ordain concerning the sacra-
ment is, by the will of Christ Himself, so much a part of

Apud fideles et ipfideles existere sacramentum conjugii-

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 69

the power and duty of the Church, that it is plainly absurd
to maintain that even the very smallest fraction of such
power has been transferred to the civil ruler.

Lastly should be borne in mind the great weight and
crucial test of history, by which it is plainly proved that
the legislative and judicial authority of which We are
speaking has been freely and constantly used by the
Church, even in times when some foolishly suppose the
head of the State either to have consented to it or con-
nived at it. It would, for instance, be incredible and alto-
gether absurd to assume that Christ our Lord condemned
the long-standing practice of polygamy and divorce by
authority delegated to Him by the procurator of the prov-
ince, or the principal ruler of the Jews. And it would be
equally extravagant to think that, when the Apostle
Paul taught that divorces and incestuous marriages were
not lawful, it was because Tiberius, Cahgula, and Nero
agreed with him or secretly commanded him so to teach.
No man in his senses could ever be persuaded that the
Church made so many laws about the holiness and indis-
solubiUty of marriage, and the marriages of slaves with
the free-born, by power received from Roman emperors
most hostile to the Christian name, whose strongest desire
was to destroy by violence and murder the rising Church
of Christ. Still less could any one beheve this to be the
case, when the law of the Church was sometimes so diver-
gent from the civil law that Ignatius the Martyr, Justin,
Athenagoras, and Tertullian publicly denounced as unjust
and adulterous certain marriages which had been sanc-
tioned by Imperial law.

Furthermore, after all power had devolved upon the
Christian emperors, the supreme Pontiffs and Bishops
assembled in Council persisted, with the same independence
and consciousness of their right, in conmianding or for-
bidding in regard to marriage whatever they judged to
be profitable or expedient for the time being, however
much it might seem to be at variance with the laws of the

70 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

State. It is well known that, with respect to the impedi-
ments arising from the marriage bond, through vow,
disparity of worship, blood relationship, certain forms of
crime, and from previously plighted troth, many decrees
were issued by the rulers of the Church in the Councils
of Granada, Aries, Chalcedon, the second of Milevimi,
and others, which were often widely different from the
decrees sanctioned by the laws of the empire. Further-
more, so far were Christian princes from arrogating any
power in the matter of Christian marriage, that they on
the contrary acknowledged and declared that it belonged
exclusively in all its fulness to the Church. In fact,
Honorius, the younger Theodosius, and Justinian also,
hesitated not to confess that the only power belonging to
them in relation to marriage was that of acting as guard-
ians and defenders of the Holy Canons. If at any time
they enacted anything by their edicts concerning im-
pediments of marriage, they voluntarily explained the
reason, affirming that they took it upon themselves so to
act, by leave and authority of the Church, whose judg-
ment they were wont to appeal to and reverently to accept
in all questions that concerned legitimacy and divorce;
as also in all those points which in any way have a neces-
sary connection with the marriage-bond. The Council
of Trent, therefore, had the clearest right to define that
it is in the Church's power "to establish diriment impedi-
ments of matrimony," and that "matrimonial causes
pertain to ecclesiastical judges." ^

Let no one then be deceived by the distinction which
some court legists have so strongly insisted upon — the dis-
tinction, namely, by virtue of which they sever the matri-
monial contract from the sacrament, with intent to hand
over the contract to the power and will of the rulers of
the State, while reserving questions concerning the sacra-
ment to the Church. A distinction, or rather severance,

' Trid. hesm. xxiv can. 4, 12.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 71

of this kind cannot be approved; for certain it is that is
Christian marriage the contract is inseparable from the
sacrament; and that, for this reason, the contract cannot
be true and legitimate without being a sacrament as well.
For Christ our Lord added to marriage the dignity of a
sacrament; but marriage is the contract itself, whenever
that contract is lawfully concluded.

Marriage, moreover, is a sacrament, because it is a holyT>^^%
sign which gives grace, showing forth an image of the
mystical nuptials of Christ with the Church. But the form
and image of these nuptials is shown precisely by the very
bond of that most close union in which man and woman
are bound together in one ; which bond is nothing else but
the marriage itself. Hence it is clear that among Christians
every true marriage is, in itself and by itself, a sacrament;
and that nothing can be further from the truth than to say
that the sacrament is a certain added ornament, or out-
ward endowment, which can be separated and torn away
from the contract at the caprice of man. Neither there-
fore by reasoning can it be shown, nor by any testimony
of history be proved, that power over the marriages of
Christians has ever lawfully been handed over to the
rulers of the State. If, in this matter, the right of any
one else has ever been violated, no one can truly say that
it has been violated by the Church.

Would that the teaching of those who reject what is
supernatural, besides being full of falsehood and injustice,
were not also the fertile source of much detriment and
calamity! But it is easy to see at a glance the greatness
of the evil which unhallowed marriages have brought,
and ever will bring, on the whole of human society.

From the beginning of the world, indeed, it was divinely
ordained that things instituted by God and by Nature
should be proved by us to be the more profitable and
salutary the more they remain imchanged in their full
integrity. For God, the Maker of all things, well know-
ing what was good for the institution and preservation

72 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

of each of His creatures, so ordered them by His will and
mind that each might adequately attain the end for which
it was made. If the rashness or the wickedness of human
agency venture to change or disturb that order of things
which has been constituted with fullest foresight^ then the
designs of infinite wisdom and usefulness begin either to be
hurtful or cease to be profitable, partly because through
the change undergone they have lost their power of bene-
fiting, and partly because God chooses to inflict punish-
ment on the pride and audacity of man. Now those who
deny that marriage is holy, and who relegate it, stripped
of all holiness, among the class of common things, uproot
thereby the foundations of nature, not only resisting the
designs of Providence, but, so far as they can, destroying
the order that God has ordained. No one, therefore,
should wonder if from such insane and impious attempts
there spring up a crop of evils pernicious in the highest
degree both to the salvation of souls and to the safety of
the commonwealth.
^ If, then, we consider the end of the divine institution of
marriage, we shall see very clearly that God intended it to
be a most fruitful source of individual benefit and of public
welfare. Not only, in strict truth, was marriage instituted
for the propagation of the human race, but also that the
lives of husbands and wives might be made better and
happier. This comes about in many ways: by their
lightening each other's burdens through mutual help; by
constant and faithful love ; by having all their possessions
in common ; and by the heavenly grace which flows from
the sacrament. Marriage also can do much for the good of
families, for, so long as it is conformable to nature and
in accordance with the counsels of God, it has power to
strengthen union of heart in the parents; to secure the
holy education of children; to attemper the authority
of the father by the example of the divine authority; to
render children obedient to their parents and servants
obedient to their masters. From such marriages as these

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 73

the State may rightly expect a race of citizens animated
by a good spirit and filled with reverence and love for
God, recognizing it their duty to obey those who rule
justly and lawfully, to love all, and to injure no one.

These many and glorious fruits were ever the product
of marriage, so long as it retained those gifts of holiness,
unity, and indissolubility from which proceeded all its
fertile and saving power; nor can any one doubt but that
it would always have brought forth such fruits, at all
times and in all places, had it been under the power
and guardianship of the Church, the trustworthy pre-
server and protector of these gifts. But now there is a
spreading wish to supplant natural and divine law by
human law; and hence has begun a gradual extinction
of that most excellent ideal of marriage which Nature
herself had impressed on the soul of man, and sealed, as
it were, with her own seal; nay, more, even in Christian
marriages this power, productive of so great good, has
been weakened by the sinfulness of man. Of what advan-
tage is it if a State can institute nuptials estranged from
the Christian religion, which is the mother of all good,
cherishing all sublime virtues, quickening and urging us
to everything that is the glory of a lofty and generous
soul? When the Christian religion is rejected and repudi-
ated, marriage sinks of necessity into the slavery of man's
vicious nature and vile passions, and finds but little protec-
tion in the help of natural goodness. A very torrent of
evil has flowed from this source, not only into private
families, but also into States. For the salutary fear of
God being removed, and there being no longer that re-
freshment in toil which is nowhere more abounding than
in the Christian religion, it very often happens, as from
facts is evident, that the mutual services and duties of
marriage seem almost unbearable; and thus very many
yearn for the loosening of the tie which they believe to
be woven by human law and of their own will, whenever
incompatibility of temper, or quarrels, or the violation

74 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

of the marriage vow, or mutual consent, or other reasons
induce them to think that it would be well to be set free.
Then, if they are hindered by law from carrying out this
shameless desire, they contend that the laws are iniquitous,
inhuman, and at variance with the rights of free citizens;
adding that every effort should be made to repeal such
enactments, and to introduce a more humane code sanc-
tioning divorce.

Now, however much the legislators of these our days
may wish to guard themselves against the impiety of men
such as we have been speaking of, they are unable to do so,
seeing that they profess to hold and defend the very same
principles of jurisprudence; and hence they have to go
with the times, and render divorce easily obtainable.
History itself shows this ; for, to pass over other instances,
we find that, at the close of the last century, divorces were
sanctioned by law in that upheaval, or rather, as it might
be called, conflagration in France, when society was
wholly degraded by the abandoning of God. Many at
the present time would fain have those laws re-enacted,
because they wish God and His Church to be altogether
exiled and excluded from the midst of human society,
madly thinking that in such laws a final remedy must be
sought for that moral corruption which is advancing with
rapid strides.

Truly, it is hardly possible to describe how great are
the evils that flow from divorce. Matrimonial contracts
are by it made variable; mutual kindness is weakened;
deplorable inducements to unfaithfulness are supplied;
harm is done to the education and training of children;
occasion is afforded for the breaking up of homes; the
seeds of dissension are sown among families; the dignity
of womanhood is lessened and brought low, and women
run the risk of being deserted after having ministered to
the pleasures of men. Since, then, nothing has such
power to lay waste families and destroy the mainstay
of kingdoms as the corruption of morals, it is easily se«ii

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 7b

that divorces are in the highest degree hostile to the
prosperity of families and States, springing as they do
from the depraved morals of the people, and, as experi-
ence shows us, opening out a way to every kind of evil-
doing in pubhc alike and in private life.

Further still, if the matter be duly pondered, we shall
clearly see these evils to be the more especially dangerous,
because, divorce once being tolerated, there will be no
restraint powerful enough to keep it within the bounds
marked out or presurmised. Great indeed is the force
of example, and even greater still the might of passion.
With such incitements it must needs follow that the
eagerness for divorce, daily spreading by devious ways,
will seize upon the minds of many like a virulent conta-
gious disease, or like a flood of water bursting through
every barrier. These are truths that doubtlessly are all
clear in themselves; but they will become clearer yet
if we call to mind the teachings of experience. So soon
as the road to divorce began to be made smooth by law,
at once quarrels, jealousies, and judicial separations
largely increased; and such shamelessness of life fol-
lowed, that men who had been in favor of these divorces
repented of what they had done, and feared that, if they
did not carefully seek a remedy by repeahng the law,
the State itself might come to ruin.

The Romans of old are said to have shrunk with horror
from the first examples of divorce, but ere long all sense
of decency was blunted in their soul ; the meagre restraint
of passion died out, and the marriage vow was so often
broken that what some writers have affirmed would
seem to be true — namely, women used to reckon years
not by the change of consuls, but of their husbands.

In like manner, at the beginning, Protestants allowed
legalized divorces in certain although but few cases, and
yet from the affinity of circumstances of Uke kind, the
number of divorces increased to such extent in Germany,
America, and elsewhere, that all wise thinkers deplored

76 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

the boundless corruption of morals, and judged the reck-
lessness of the laws to be simply intolerable.

Even in Catholic States the like evil existed. For when-
ever at any time divorce was introduced, the abundance
of misery that followed far exceeded all that the framers
of the law could have foreseen. In fact, many lent their
minds to contrive all kinds of fraud and device, and by
accusations of cruelty, violence, and adultery to feign
grounds for the dissolution of the matriomnial bond of
which they had grown weary; and all this with so great
havoc to morals that an amendment of the laws was
deemed to be urgently needed.

Can any one, therefore, doubt that laws in favor of
divorce would have a result equally baneful and calamitous
were they to be passed in these our days? There exists
not, indeed, in the projects and enactments of men any
power to change the character and tendency which things
have received from nature. Those men therefore show
but Uttle wisdom in the idea they have formed of the well-
being of the commonwealth who think that the inherent
character of marriage can be perverted with inipunity;
and who, disregarding the sanctity of religion and of the
sacrament, seem to wish to degrade and dishonor mar-
riage more basely than was done even by heathen laws.
Indeed, if they do not change their views, not only pri-
vate families, but all pubUc society, wiU have imceasing
cause to fear lest they should be miserably driven into
that general confusion and overthrow of order which is
even now the wicked aim of Sociahsts and Communists.

Thus we see most clearly how foolish and senseless it
is to expect any pubUc good from divorce, when, on the
contrary, it tends to the certain destruction of society.

It must consequently be acknowledged that the Church
has deserved exceedingly well of all nations by her ever-
watchful care in guarding the sanctity and the indis-
solubility of marriage. Again, no small amount of grati-
tude is owing to her for ha\dng, during the last hundred

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 77

years, openly denounced the wicked laws which have
grievously offended on this particular subject; as well
as for her having branded with anathema the baneful
heresy obtaining among Protestants touching divorce and
separation; also for having in many ways conjiemned the
habitual dissolution of marriage among the Greeks; for
having declared invaUd all marriages contracted upon
the understanding that they may be at some future time
dissolved; and lastly, for having, from the earliest times,
repudiated the imperial laws which disastrously favored
divorce.

As often, indeed, as the supreme Pontiffs have resisted
the most powerful among rulers, in their threatening
demands that divorces carried out by them should be
confirmed by the Church, so often must we account them
to have been contending for the safety, not only of religion,
but also of the human race. For this reason all genera-
tions of men will admire the proofs of unbending courage
which are to be found in the decrees of Nicholas I. against
Lothair; of Urban II. and Paschal II. against Philip I.
of France; of Celestine III. and Innocent III. against
Alphonsus of Leon and PhiUp II. of France; of Clement
VII. and Paul III. against Henry VIII.; and lastly, of
Pius VII., that holy and courageous Pontiff, against
Napoleon I., when at the height of his prosperity and
in the fulness of his power.

This being so, aU rulers and administrators of the State
who are desirous of following the dictates of reason and
wisdom, and anxious for the good of their people, ought to
make up their minds to keep the holy laws of marriage
intact, and to make use of the proffered aid of the Church
for securing the safety of morals and the happiness of
famihes, rather than suspect her of hostile intention, and
falsely and wickedly accuse her of violating the civil law.

They should do this the more readily because the
Catholic Church, though powerless in any way to abandon
the duties of her ofhce or the defence of her authority.

78 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

still very greatly inclines to kindness and indulgence
whenever they are consistent with the safety of her rights
and the sanctity of her duties. Wherefore she makes
no decrees in relation to marriage without havdng regard
to the state of the body politic and the condition of the
general public ; and has besides more than once mitigated,
as far as possible, the enactments of her own laws when
there were just and weighty reasons. . "Moreover, she is
not unaware, and never calls in doubt, that the Sacrament
of Marriage, being instituted for the preservation and
increase of the human race, has a necessary relation to
circumstances of life which, though connected with
marriage, belong to the civil order, and about which the
State rightly makes strict inquiry and justly promulgates
decrees.

Yet no one doubts that Jesus Christ, the Founder of
the Church, willed her sacred power to be distinct from
the civil power, and each power to be free and unshaclded
in its own sphere : with this condition, however — a condi-
tion good for both, and of advantage to all men — that
union and concord should be maintained between them;
and that on those questions which are, though in different
ways, of common right and authority, the power to which
secular matters have been intrusted should happily and
becomingly depend on the other power which has in its
charge the interests of heaven. In such arrangement
and harmony is found not only the best line of action
for each power, but also the most opportune and effica-
cious method of helping men in all that pertains to their
life here, and to their hope of salvation hereafter. For,
as We have shown in former Encyclical Letters, the in-
tellect of man is greatly ennobled by the Christian faith,
and made better able to shun and banish all error, while
faith borrows in turn no little help from the intellect; and
in like manner, when the civil power is on friendly terms
with the sacred authority of the Church, there accrues
to both a great increase of usefulness. The dignity of

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 79

the one is exalted, and so long as religion is its guide it
will never rule unjustly; while the other receives help of
protection and defence for the pubUe good of the faithful.

Being moved, therefore, by these considerations, as We
have exhorted rulers at other times, so still more earnestly
We exhort them now, to concord and friendly feeling;
and We are the first to stretch out Our hand to them with
fatherly benevolence, and to offer to them the help of Our
jsupreme authority, a help which is the more necessary at
this time when, in public opinion, the authority of rulers
is wounded and enfeebled. Now that the minds of so
many are inflamed with a reckless spirit of hberty, and
men are wickedly endeavoring to get rid of every restraint
of authority, however legitimate it may be, the public
safety demands that both powers should unite their
strength to avert the evils which are hanging, not only
over the Church, but also over civil society.

But, while earnestly exhorting all to a friendly union
of will, and beseeching God, the Prince of peace, to infuse
a love of concord into all hearts. We cannot. Venerable
Brothers, refrain from urging you more and more to
fresh earnestness, and zeal, and watchfulness, though
we know that these are already very great. With every
effort and with all authority, strive, as much as you are
able, to preserve whole and undefiled among the people
committed to your charge the doctrine which Christ our
Lord taught us; which the apostles, the interpreters of
the will of God, have handed down; and which the
Catholic Church has herseff scrupulously guarded, and
conmianded to be believed in all ages by the faithful of
Christ.

Let special care be taken that the people be well in-
structed in the precepts of Christian wisdom, so that they
may always remember that marriage was not instituted
by the wiU of man, but, from the ver}^ beginning, by the
authority and command of God; that it does not admit
of plurality of wives or husbands; that Christ, the

80 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

author of the New Covenant, raised it from a rite of
nature to be a sacrament, and gave to His Church legis-
lative and judicial power with regard to the bond of union.
On this point the very greatest care must be taken to
instruct them, lest their minds should be led into error
by the unsound conclusions of adversaries who desire that
the Church should be deprived of that power.

In like manner, all ought to understand clearly that,
if there be any union of a man and a woman among the
faithful of Christ which is not a sacrament, such union
has not the force and nature of a proper marriage; that
although contracted in accordance with the laws of the
State, it cannot be more than a rite or custom introduced
by the civil law. Further, the civil law can deal with and
decide those matters alone which in the civil order spring
from marriage, and which cannot possibly exist, as is
evident, unless there be a true and lawful cause for them,
that is to say, the nuptial bond. It is of the greatest con-
sequence to husband and wife that all these things should
be known and well understood by them, in order that they
may conform to the laws of the State, if there be no
objection on the part of the Chm-ch; for the Chm-ch
wishes the effects of marriage to be guarded in all pos-
sible ways, and that no harm may come to the children.

In the great confusion of opinions, however, which
day by day is spreading more and more widely, it should
further be known that no power can dissolve the bond
of Christian marriage whenever this has been ratified and
consummated; and that, of a consequence, those hus-
bands and wives are guilty of a manifest crime who plan,
for whatever reason, to be united in a second marriage
before the first one has been ended by death. When,
indeed, matters have come to such a pitch that it seems
impossible for them to live together any longer, then the
Church allows them to live apart, and strives at the same
time to soften the evils of this separation by such remedies
and helps as are suited to their condition; yet she never

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE. 81

ceases to endeavor to bring about a reconcOiation, and
never despairs of doing so. But these are extreme cases;
and they would seldom exist if men and women entered
into the married state with proper dispositions, not in-
fluenced by passion, but entertaining right ideas of the
duties of marriage and of its noble purpose; neither
would they anticipate their marriage by a series of sins
drawing down upon them the wrath of God.

To sum up all in a few words, there would be a calm
and quiet constancy in marriage if married people would
gather strength and Ufe from the virtue of religion alone,
which imparts to us resolution and fortitude; for religion
would enable them to bear tranquilly and even gladly
the trials of their state, such as, for instance, the faults
that they discover in one another, the difference of temper
and character, the weight of a mother's cares, the wearing
anxiety about the education of children, reverses of for-
tune, and the sorrows of life.

Care also must be taken that they do not easily enter
into marriage with those who are not Catholics ; for when
minds do not agree as to the observances of rehgion, it is
scarcely possible to hope for agreement in other things.
Other reasons also proving that persons should turn with
dread from such marriages are chiefly these: that they give
occasion to forbidden association and communion in
religious matters; endanger the faith of the CathoHc
partner; are a hindrance to the proper education of
the children; and often lead to a mixing up of truth and
falsehood, and to the belief that all religions are equally
good.

Lastly, since We well know that none should be ex-
cluded from Our charity. We commend, Venerable
Brothers, to your fidehty and piety those unhappy persons
who, carried away by the heat of passion, and being
utterly indifferent to their salvation, live wickedly
together without the bond of lawful marriage. Let your
utmost care be exercised in bringing such persons back to

82 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE.

their duty; and, both by your own efforts and by those
of good men who will consent to help you, strive by
every means that they may see how wrongly they have
acted; that they may do penance; and that they may
be induced to enter into a lawful marriage according to
the Cathohc rite.

You will at once see. Venerable Brothers, that the doc-
trine and precepts in relation to Christian marriage, which
We have thought good to communicate to you in this
letter, tend no less to the preservation of civil society
than to the everlasting salvation of souls. May God
grant that, by reason of their gravity and importance,
minds may everywhere be found docile and ready to obey
them! For this end let us all suppliantly, with humble
prayer, implore the help of the Blessed and Immaculate
Virgin Mary, that, our hearts being quickened to the obedi-
ence of faith, she may show herseK our mother and our
:?r.elper. With equal earnestness let us ask the princes
©1^ the apostles, Peter and Paul, the destroyers of heresies,
the sowers of the seed of truth, to save the human race
by their powerful patronage from the deluge of errors
that is surging afresh.

In the meantime, as an earnest of heavenly gifts, and a
testimony of Our special benevolence. We grant you all,
Venerable Brothers, and to the people confided to your
charge^ from the depths of Our heart, the Apostolic Bene-
diction.

FREEMASONRY.
Encyclical Letter Humanum Genus, April 20, 1884.

The race of man, after its miserable fall from God,
the Creator and the Giver of heavenly gifts, "through the
envy of the devil," separated into two diverse and opposite
parts, of which the one steadfastly contends for truth
and virtue, the other for those things which are contrary
to virtue and to truth. The one is the kingdom of God
on earth, namely, the true Church of Jesus Christ; and
those who desire from their heart to be united with it,
so as to gain salvation, must of necessity serve God and
His only-begotten Son with their whole mind and with an
entire will. The other is the kingdom of Satan, in whose
possession and control are all whosoever follow the fatal
example of their leader and of our first parents, those who
refuse to obey the divine and eternal law, and who have
many aims of their own in contempt of God, and many
aims also against God.

This twofold kingdom St. Augustine keenly discerned
and described after the manner of two cities, contrary
in their laws because striving for contrary objects; and
with a subtle brevity he expressed the efficient cause of
each in these words: "Two loves formed two cities: the
love of self, reaching even to contempt of God, an earthly
city; and the love of God, reaching to contempt of self,
a heavenly one." At every period of time each has been
in conflict with the other, with a variety and multiphcity
of weapons, and of warfare, although not always with
equal ardor and assault. At this period, however, the

84 FREEMASONRY.

partisans of evil seem to be combining together, and to
be struggling with united vehemence, led on or assisted
by that strongly organized and widespread association
called the Freemasons. No longer making any secret
of their purposes, they axe now boldly rising up against
God Himself. They are planning the destruction of holy
Church publicly and openly, and this with the set pur-
pose of utterly despoihng the nations of Christendom,
if it were possible, of the blessings obtained for us through
Jesus Christ our Saviour. Lamenting these evils. We are
constrained by the charity which urges Our heart to cry
out often to God: "For lo, Thy enemies have made a noise;
and they that hate Thee have lifted up the head. They
have taken a malicious counsel against Thy people, and
they have consulted against Thy saints. They have said,
'Come, and let us destroy them, so that they be not a
nation."'

At so urgent a crisis, when so fierce and so pressing an
onslaught is made upon the Christian name, it is Our
office to point out the danger, to mark who are the adver-
saries, and to the best of Our power to make head against
their plans and devices, that those may not perish whose
salvation is committed to Us, and that the kingdom of
Jesus Christ intrusted to Our charge may not only stand
and remain whole, but may be enlarged by an ever-
increasing growth throughout the world.

The Roman Pontiffs Our predecessors, in their incessant
watchfulness over the safety of the Christian people,
were prompt in detecting the presence and the purpose
of this capital enemy immediately it sprang into the
light instead of hiding as a dark conspiracy; and more-
over they took occasion with true foresight to give, as
it were, the alarm, and to admonish both princes and
nations to stand on their guard, and not allow themselves
to be caught by the devices and snares laid out to deceive
them.

The first warning of the danger was given by Clement

FREEMASONRY. 86

XII. in the year 1738, and his Constitution was confirmed
and renewed by Benedict XIV. Pius VII. followed the
same path; and Leo XII., by his Apostolic Constitution,
"Qwo graviora," put together the acts and decrees of
former Pontiffs on this subject, and ratified and con-
firmed them forever. In the same sense spoke Pius VIII.,
Gregory XVI., and many times over Pius IX.

For as soon as the constitution and the spirit of the
Masonic sect were clearly discovered by manifest signs
of its action, by cases investigated, by the publication
of its laws, and of its rites and commentaries, with the
addition often of the personal testimony of those who
were in the secret, this Apostolic See denounced the sect
of the Freemasons, and publicly declared its constitution,
as contrary to law and right, to be pernicious no less to
Christendom than to the State; and it forbade any one to
enter the society, under the penalties which the Church
is wont to inflict upon exceptionally guilty persons. The
sectaries, indignant at this, thinking to elude or to weaken
the force of these decrees, partly by contempt of them,
and partly by calumny, accused the Sovereign Pontiffs
who had passed them either of exceeding the bounds of
moderation in their decrees or of decreeing what was not
just. This was the manner in which they endeavored
to elude the authority and the weight of the Apostolic
Constitutions of Clement XII. and Benedict XIV., as
well as of Pius VII. and Pius IX. Yet in the very society
itself there were to be found men who unwillingly ac-
knowledged that the Roman Pontiffs had acted within
their right, according to the Catholic doctrine and dis-
cipline. The Pontiffs received the same assent, and in
strong terms, from many princes and heads of govern-
ments, who made it their business either to delate the
Masonic society to the Apostolic See, or of their owti accord
by special enactments to brand it as pernicious, as, for
example, in Holland, Austria, Switzerland. Spain, Bavaria,
Savoy, and other parts of Italy.

86 FREEMASONRY.

B t, what is of highest importance, the course of events
has demonstrated the prudence of Our predecessors.
For their provident and paternal solicitude had not
always and everywhere the result desired ; and this, either
because of the simulation and cunning of some who were
active agents in the mischief, or else of the thoughtless
levity of the rest who ought, in their own interest, to
have given to the matter their diligent attention. In con-
sequence the sect of Freemasons grew with a rapidity
beyond conception in the course of a century and a half,
until it came to be able, by means of fraud or of audacity,
to gain such entrance into every rank of the State as to
seem to be almost its ruling power. This swift and for-
midable advance has brought upon the Church, upon the
power of princes, upon the public well-being, precisely
that grievous harm which Our predecessors had long
before foreseen. Such a condition has been reached
that henceforth there will be grave reason to fear, not
indeed for the Church — for her foundation is much too
firm to be overturned by the effort of men — but for those
States in which prevails the power, either of the sect of
which we are speaking or of other sects not dissimilar
which lend themselves to it as disciples and subordinates.

For these reasons We no sooner came to the helm of
the Church than We clearly saw and felt it to be Our
duty to use Our authority to the very utmost against so
vast an evil. We have several times already, as occasion
served, attacked certain chief points of teaching which
showed in a special manner the perverse influence of
Masonic opinions. Thus, in Our Encyclical Letter,
''Quod Apostolid muneris," We endeavored to refute the
monstrous doctrines of the Socialists and Communists;
afterwards, in another beginning "Arcanum," We took
pains to defend and explain the true and genuine idea of
domestic life, of which marriage is the spring and origin;
and again, in that which begins " Diutumum" We de-
scribed the ideal of political government conformed to

FREEMASONRY. 87

the principles of Christian wisdom, which is marvel-
lously in harmony, on the one hand, with the natural
order of things, and, on the other, with the well-being
of both sovereign princes and of nations. It is now Our
intention, following the example of Our predecessors,
directly to treat of the Masonic society itself, of its whole
teaching, of its aims, and of its manner of thinking and
acting, in order to bring more and more into the light
its power for evil, and to do what We can to arrest the
contagion of this fatal plague.

There are several organized bodies which, though dif-
fering in name, in ceremonial, in form and origin, are
nevertheless so bound together by community of pur-
pose and by the similarity of their main opinions, as to
make in fact one thing with the sect of the Freemasons,
which is a kind of centre whence they all go forth, and
whither they all return. Now, these no longer show a
desire to remain concealed ; for they hold their meetings
in the daylight and before the public eye, and publish their
own newspaper organs; and yet, when thoroughly under-
stood, they are found still to retain the nature and the
habits of secret societies. There are many things like
mysteries which it is the fixed rule to hide with extreme
care, not only from strangers, but from very many mem-
bers also; such as their secret and final designs, the names
of the chief leaders, and certain secret and inner meetings,
as well as their decisions, and the ways and means of
carrying them out. This is, no doubt, the object of
the manifold difference among the members as to right,
office, and privilege — of the received distinction of orders
and grades, and of that severe disciphne wliich is main-
twined. Candidates are generally commanded to promise
— nay, with a special oath, to swear — that they will
never, to any person, at any time or in any way, make
known the members, the passes, or the subjects dis-
cussed. Thus, with a fraudulent external appearance,
nsid with a style of simulation which is always the same,

88 FREEMASONRY.

the Freemasons, like the Manichees of old, strive, aa
far as possible, to conceal themselves, and to admit no
witnesses but their own members. As a convenient
manner of concealment, they assmne the character of
literary men and scholars associated for purposes of
learning. They speak of their zeal for a more cultured
refinement, and of their love for the poor; and they
declare their one wish to be the amelioration of the condi-
tion of the masses, and to share with the largest possible
number all the benefits of civil hfe. Were these pur-
poses aimed at in real truth, they are by no means
the whole of their object. Moreover, to be enrolled,
it is necessary that the candidates promise and under-
take to be thenceforward strictly obedient to their leaders
and masters with the utmost submission and fidehty,
and to be in readiness to do their bidding upon the slight-
est expression of their will; or, if disobedient, to submit
to the direst penalties and death itself. As a fact, if
any are judged to have betrayed the doings of the sect
or to have resisted commands given, punishment is in-
flicted on them not infrequently, and with so much audac-
ity and dexterity that the assassin very often escapes the
detection and penalty of his crime.

But to simulate and wish to lie hid; to bind men Uke
slaves in the very tightest bonds, and without giving
any sufficient reason; to make use of men enslaved to the
will of another for any arbitrary act; to arm men's right
hands for bloodshed after securing impunity for the
crime — all this is an enormity from which nature recoils.
"V^^le^efore reason and truth itself make it plain that the
society of which we are speaking is in antagonism \vith
justice and natural uprightness. And this becomes still
plainer, inasmuch as other arguments also, and those
very manifest, prove that it is essentially opposed to
natural virtue. For, no matter how great may be men's
cleverness in conceahng and their experience in lying, it
is impossible to prevent the effects of any cause from

FREEMASONRY. 89

showing, in some way, the intrinsic nature of the cause
whence they come. " A good tree cannot produce bad
fruit, nor a bad tree produce good fruit." Now, the Ma-
sonic sect produces fruits that are pernicious and of the
bitterest savor. For, from what We have above most
clearly shown, that which is their ultimate purpose forces
itself into view — namely, the utter overthrow of that
whole rehgious and political order of the world which the
Christian teaching has produced, and the substitution of
a new state of things in accordance with their ideas, of
which the foundations and laws shall be drawn from mere
"Naturalism."

What We have said, and are about to say, must be
understood of the sect of the Freemasons taken gener-
ically, and in so far as it comprises the associations kin-
dred to it and confederated with it, but not of the individual
members of them. There may be persons amongst
these, and not a few, who, although not free from the
guilt of having entangled themselves ii^ such associations,
yet are neither themselves partners in their criminal
acts, nor aware of the ultimate object which they are
endeavoring to attain. In the same way, some of the
affiliated societies, perhaps, by no means approve of
the extreme conclusions which they would, if consistent,
embrace as necessarily following from their common
principles, did not their very fouMess strike them with
horror. Some of these, again, are led by circumstances
of times and places either to aim at smaller things than
the others usually attempt, or than they themselves
would wish to attempt. They are not, however, for
this reason, to be reckoned as ahen to the IMasonic fed-
eration; for the Masonic federation is to be judged not
so much by the things which it has done, or brought to
completion, as by the sum of its pronounced opinions.

Now, the fundamental doctrine of the Naturalists,
which they sufficiently make known by their very name,
is that human nature and human reason ought in all thin/rs

90 FREEMASONRY.

to be mistress and guide. Laying this down, they care
little for duties to God, or pervert them by erroneous
and vague opinions. For they deny that anything ha«
been taught by God; they allow no dogma of religion or
truth which cannot be understood by the human intelli-
gence, nor any teacher who ought to be believed by reason
of his authority. And since it is the special and exclu-
sive duty of the CathoHc Church fully to set forth in
words truths divinely received, to teach, besides other
divine helps to salvation, the authority of its office, and
to defend the same with perfect purity, it is against the
Church that the rage and attack of the enemies are prin-
cipally directed.

In those matters which regard religion let it be seen
how the sect of the Freemasons acts, especially where it
is more free to act without restraint, and then let any
one judge whether in fact it does not wish to carry out
the policy of the Naturalists. By a long and persever-
ing labor, they endeavor to bring about this result —
namely, that the office and authority of the Church may
become of no account in the civil State; and for this
same reason they declare to the people and contend that
Church and State ought to be altogether disunited. By
this means they reject from the laws and from the com-
monwealth the wholesome influence of the CathoHc
refigion; and they consequently imagine that States
ought to be constituted without any regard for the laws
and precepts of the Church.

Nor do they think it enough to disregard the Church
— the best of guides — unless they also injure it by their
hostility. Indeed, with them it is lawful to attack with
impunity the very foundations of the CathoUc religion,
in speech, in writing, and in teaching; and even the
rights of the Church are not spared, and the ofiices with
which it is divinely invested are not safe. The least
possible liberty to manage affairs is left to the Chm-ch;
and this is done by laws not apparently very hostile, but

FREEMASONRY. 91

in reality framed and fitted to hinder freedom of action.
Moreover, We see exceptional and onerous laws imposed
upon the clergy, to the end that they may be continually
diminished in number and in necessary means. We
see also the remnants of the possessions of the Church
fettered by the strictest conditions, and subjected to the
power and arbitrary will of the administrators of the
State, and the religious orders rooted up and scattered.

But against the Apostolic See and the Roman Pontiff
the contention of these enemies has been for a long time
directed. The Pontiff was first, for specious reasons,
thrust out from the bulwark of his liberty and of his
right, the civil princedom; soon he was unjustly driven
into a condition which was unbearable because of the
difficulties raised on all sides; and now the time has
come when the partisans of the sects openly declare,
what in secret among themselves they have for a long
time plotted, that the sacred power of the Pontiffs must
be abolished, and that the Pontificate itself, founded by
divine right, must be utterly destroyed. If other proofs
were wanting, this fact would be sufficiently disclosed by
the testimony of men well informed, of whom some at
other times, and others again recently, have declared it
to be true of the Freemasons that they especially desire
to assail the Church with irreconcilable hostility, and
that they vnll never rest until they have destroyed what-
ever the supreme Pontiffs have established for the sake
of religion.

If those who are admitted as members are not com-
manded to abjure by any form of words the Catholic
doctrines, this omission, so far from being adverse to the
designs of the Freemasons, is more useful for their pur-
poses. First, in this way they easily deceive the simple-
minded and the heedless, and can induce a far greater
number to become members. Again, as all who offer
themselves are received whatever may be their form of
religion, they thereby teach the great error of this age

92 FREEMASONRY.

— that a regard for religion should be held as an indif-
ferent matter, and that all religions are ahke. This
manner of reasoning is calculated to bring about the
ruin of all forms of reUgion, and especially of the Catholic
religion, which, as it is the only one that is true, cannot,
without great injustice, be regarded as merely equal to
other religions.

But the Naturalists go much further; for having, in
the highest things, entered upon a wholly erroneous
course, they are carried headlong to extremes, either by
reason of the weakness of human nature, or because God
inflicts upon them the just punishment of their pride.
Hence it happens that they no longer consider as certain
and permanent those things which are fully understood
by the natural Ught of reason, such as certainly are — the
existence of God, the immaterial nature of the human
soul, and its immortality. The sect of the Freemasons,
by a similar course of error, is exposed to these same dan-
gers; for although in a general way they may profess the
existence of God, they themselves are witnesses that they
do not all maintain this truth with the full assent of the
mind or with a firm conviction. Neither do they conceal
that this question about God is the greatest source and
cause of discords among them; in fact, it is certain that
a considerable contention about this same subject has
existed among them very lately. But indeed the sect
allows great hberty to its votaries, so that to each side
i» given the right to defend its own opinion, either that
there is a God, or that there is none; and those who
obstinately contend that there is no God are as easily
initiated as those who contend that God exists, though,,
like the Pantheists, they have false notions concerning
Him: all which is nothing else than taking away the
reality, while retaining some absurd representation of
the divine nature.

When this greatest fundamental truth has been over-
turned or weakened, it follows that those truths also

FREEMASONRY. 93

which are known by the teaching of nature must begin to
fall — namely, that all things were made by the free will
of God the Creator; that the world is governed by Provi-
dence; that souls do not die; that to this Hfe of men upon
the earth there will succeed another and an everlasting hfe.
When these truths are done away with, which are as the
principles of nature and important for knowledge and for
practical use, it is easy to see what will become of both
public and private morahty. We say nothing of those
more heavenly virtues, which no one can exercise or even
acquire without a special gift and grace of God; of which
necessarily no trace can be found in those who reject
as unknown the redemption of mankind, the grace of
God, the sacraments, and the happiness to be obtained
in heaven. We speak now of the duties which have their
origin in natural probity. That God is the Creator of
the world and its provident Ruler; that the eternal law
commands the natural order to be maintained, and for-
bids that it be disturbed ; that the last end of men is a
destiny far above human things and beyond this sojourn-
ing upon the earth: these are the sources and these the
principles of all justice and morality. If these be taken
away, as the Naturalists and Freemasons desire, there
wdll inunediately be no knowledge as to what constitutes
justice and injustice, or upon what principle moraUty
15 founded. And, in truth, the teaching of moraUty
which alone finds favor with the sect of Freemasons, and
in which they contend that youth should be instructed,
is that which they call "civil," and "independent," and
"free," namely, that which does not contain any rehgious
belief. But how insufficient such teaching is, how want-
ing in soundness, and how easily moved by every impulse
of passion, is sufficiently proved by its sad fruits, which
have already begun to appear. For wherever, by re-
moving Christian education, the sect has begim more
completely to rule, there goodness and integrity of morals
have begun quickly to perish, monstrous and shameful

94 FREEMASONRY.

opinions have grown up, and the audacity of evil deeds
has risen to a high degree. All this is commonly com-
plained of and deplored; and not a few of those who by
no means wish to do so are compelled by abundant evi-
dence to give not infrequently the same testimony.

Moreover, since human nature was stained by original
sin, and is therefore more disposed to vice than to virtue,
for a virtuous life it is absolutely necessary to restrain the
disorderly movements of the soul, and to make the passions
obedient to reason. In this conflict human things must
very often be despised, and the greatest labors and hard-
ships must be undergone, in order that reason may always
hold its sway. But the Naturalists and Freemasons,
having no faith in those things which we have learned
by the revelation of God, deny that our first parents
sinned, and consequently think that free will is not at
all weakened and inclined to evil. On the contrary,
exaggerating rather our natural virtue and excellence
and placing therein alone the principle and rule of justice,
they cannot even imagine that there is any need at all
of a constant struggle and a perfect steadfastness to
overcome the violence and rule the passions of our nature.
Wherefore we see that men are publicly tempted by the
many allurements of pleasure ; that there are journals and
pamphlets with neither moderation nor shame; that
stage-plays are remarkable for license; that designs for
works of art are shamelessly sought in the laws of a so-
called realism; that the contrivances for a soft and deli-
cate hfe are most carefully devised; and that aU the
blandishments of pleasure are diUgently sought out by
which virtue may be lulled to sleep. Wickedly also, but
at the same time quite consistently, do those act who do
away with the expectation of the joys of heaven, and
bring down all happiness to the level of mortaUty, and,
as it were, sink it in the earth. Of what We have said
the following fact, astonishing not so much in itself as in
its open expression, may serve as a confirmation. For

FREEMASONRY. 95

since generally no one is accustomed to obey crafty and
clever men so submissively as those whose soul is weak-
ened and broken down by the domination of the passions,
there have been in the sect of the Freemasons some who
have plainly determined and proposed that, artfully and
of set purpose, the multitude should be satiated with a
boundless license of vice, as, when this had been done, it
would easily come undey their power and authority for
any acts of daring.

What refers to domestic life in the teaching of the
Naturalists is almost all contained in the following
declarations. That marriage belongs to the genus of
commercial contracts, which can rightly be revoked by
the will of those who made them, and that the civil
rulers of the State have power over the matrimonial
bond; that in the education of youth nothing is to be
taught in the matter of religion as of certain and fixed
opinion; and each one must be left at liberty to follow,
when he comes of age, whatever he may prefer. To
these things the Freemasons fully assent; and not only
assent, but have long endeavored to make them into a
law and institution. For in many countries, and those
nominally Catholic, it is enacted that no marriages shall
be considered lawful except those contracted by the civil
rite; in other places the law permits divorce; and in
others every effort is used to make it lawful as soon as
may be. Thus the time is quickly coming when marriages
will be turned into another kind of contract — ^that is, into
changeable and uncertain unions which fancy may join
together, and which the same when changed may disunite.
With the greatest unanimity the sect of the Freemasons
also endeavors to take to itself the education of youth.
They think that they can easily mould to their opinions
that soft and pliant age, and bend it whither they will;
and that nothing can be more fitted than this to enable
them to bring up the youth of the State after their own
plan. Therefore in the education and itw^jr ciion of

96 FREEMASONRY

children they allow no share, either of teaching or of
discipline, to the ministers of the Church; and in many
places they have procured that the education of youth
shall be exclusively in the hands of laymen, and that
nothing which treats of the most important and most
holy duties of men to God shall be introduced into the
instructions on morals.

Then come their doctrines of politics, in which the
Naturalists lay down that all men have the same right,
and are in every respect of equal and like condition; that
each one is naturally free; that no one has the right to
command another; that it is an act of violence to require
men to obey any authority other than that which is
obtained from themselves. According to this, therefore,
all things belong to the free people; power is held by the
command or permission of the people, so that, when the
popular will changes, rulers may lawfully be deposed;
and the source of all rights and civil duties is either in
the multitude or in the governing authority when this
is constituted according to the latest doctrines. It is
held also that the State should be without God; that in
the various forms of religion there is no reason why one
should have precedence of another; and that they are
all to occupy the same place.

That these doctrines are equally acceptable to the
Freemasons, and that they would wish to constitute
States according to this example and model, is too well
known to require proof. For some time past they have
openly endeavored to bring this about with all their
strength and resources; and in this they prepare the way
for not a few bolder men who are hurrying on even to
worse things, in their endeavor to obtain equality and
community of all goods by the destruction of every dis-
tinction of rank and property.

What therefore the sect of the Freemasons is, and what
course it pursues, appears sufficiently from the summary
We have briefly given. Their chief dogmas are so greatly

FREEMASONRY. 97

and manifestly at variance with reason, that nothing can
be more perverse. To wish to destroy the religion and
the Church which God Himself has estabhshed, and whose
perpetuity He insures by His protection, and to bring
back after a lapse of eighteen centuries the manners and
customs of the pagans, is signal folly and audacious impiety.
Neither is it less horrible nor more tolerable that they
should repudiate the benefits which Jesus Christ has mer-
cifully obtained, not only for individuals, but also for the
family and for civil society, benefits which, even according
to the judgment and testimony of enemies of Christianity,
are very great. In this insane and wicked endeavor we
may almost see the implacable hatred and spirit of revenge
with which Satan himself is inflamed against Jesus
Christ. — So also the studious endeavor of the Freemasons
to destroy the chief foundations of justice and honesty,
and to co-operate with those who would wish, as if they
were mere animals, to do what they please, tends only to
the ignominious and disgraceful ruin of the human race.
The evil, too, is increased by the dangers which threaten
both domestic and civil society. As We have elsewhere
shown, in marriage, according to the belief of almost every
nation, there is something sacred and religious; and the
law of God has determined that marriages shall not be
dissolved. If they are deprived of their sacred character,
and made dissoluble, trouble and confusion in the family
will be the result, the wife being deprived of her dignity
and the children left without protection as to their in-
terests and well-being. — ^To have in public matters no care
for religion, and in the arrangement and administration of
civil affairs to have no more regard for God than if He did
not exist, is a rashness unknown to the very pagans; for
in their heart and soul the notion of a divinity and the
need of public religion were so firmly fixed that they
would have thought it easier to have a city without foun-
dation than a city without God. Human society, indeed,
for which by nature we are formed, has been constituted

»8 FREEMASONRY.

by God the Author of nature; and from Him, as from
their principle and source, flow in all their strength and
permanence the countless benefits with which society
abounds. As we are each of us admonished by the very
voice of nature to worship God in piety and holiness, as
the Giver unto us of life and of all that is good therein, so
also and for the same reason, nations and States are bound
to worship Him; and therefore it is clear that those who
would absolve society from all religious duty act not only
unjustly but also with ignorance and foUy.

As men are by the will of God born for civil union and
society, and as the power to rule is so necessary a bond of
society that, if it be taken away, society must at once be
broken up, it follows that from Him who is the Author
of society has come also the authority to rule; so that
whosoever rules, he is the minister of God. Wherefore,
as the end and nature of human society so requires, it
is right to obey the just commands of lawful authority,
as it is right to obey God who ruleth all things; and it is
most untrue that the people have it in their power to
cast aside their obedience whensoever they please.

In like manner, no one doubts that all men are equal
one to another, so far as regards their common origin and
nature, or the last end which each one has to attain, or the
rights and duties which are thence derived. But as the
abiUties of all are not equal, as one differs from another in
the powers of mind or body, and as there are very many
dissimilarities of manner, disposition, and character, it
is most repugnant to reason to endeavor to confine all
within the same measure, and to extend complete equality
to the institutions of civil life. Just as a perfect condition
of the body results from the conjunction and composition
of its various members, which, though differing in form
and purpose, make, by their union and the distribution
of each one to its proper place, a combination beautiful to
behold, firm in strength, and necessary for use; so, in
the commonwealth, there is an almost infinite diasimi*

FREEMASONRY. 99

larity of men, as parte of the whole. If they are to be all
equal, and each is to follow his own will, the State will
appear most deformed; but if, with a distinction of de-
grees of dignity, of pursuits and employments, all aptly
conspire for the common good, they will present a natural
image of a well-constituted State.

Now, from the disturbing errors which We have de-
scribed the greatest dangers to States are to be feared. For,
the fear of God and reverence for divine laws being taken
away, the authority of rulers despised, sedition permitted
and approved, and the popular passions urged on to law-
lessness, with no restraint save that of punishment, a
change and overthrow of all things will necessarily follow.
Yea, this change and overthrow is deliberately planned
and put forward by many associations of Communists
and Socialists; and to their undertakings the sect of Free-
masons is not hostile, but greatly favors their designs,
and holds in common with them their chief opinions. And
if these men do not at once and everywhere endeavor to
carry out their extreme views, it is not to be attributed
to their teaching and their will, but to the virtue of that
divine reHgion which cannot be destroyed; and also because
the sounder part of men, refusing to be enslaved to secret
societies, vigorously resist their insane attempts.

Would that all men would judge of the tree by its fruits,
and would acknowledge the seed and origin of the evils
which press upon us, and of the dangers that are impending !
We have to deal with a deceitful and crafty enemy, who,
gratifying the ears of people and of princes, has ensnared
them by smooth speeches and by adulation. Ingratiating
themselves with rulers under a pretence of friendship, the
Freemasons have endeavored to make them their allies
and powerful helpers for the destruction of the Christian
name; and that they might more strongly urge them on,
they have, with determined calumny, accused the Church
of invidiously contending with rulers in matters that aflFect
their authority and sovereign power. Having, by thes«

100 FREEMASONRY.

artifices, insured their own safety and audacity, they
have begun to exercise great weight in the government of
States; but nevertheless they are prepared to shake the
foundations of empires, to harass the rulers of the State,
to accuse, and to cast them out, as often as they appear
to govern otherwise than they themselves could have
wished. In like manner they have by flattery deluded
the people. Proclaiming with a loud voice Hberty and
public prosperity, and saying that it was owing to the
Church and to sovereigns that the multitude were not
drawn out of their unjust servitude and poverty, they
have imposed upon the people; and, exciting them by
a thirst for novelty, they have urged them to assail both
the Church and the civil power. Nevertheless, the expec-
tation of the benefits which were hoped for was greater
than the reahty; indeed, the common people, more op-
pressed than they were before, are deprived in their
misery of that solace which, if things had been arranged
in a Christian manner, they would have had with ease
and in abundance. But whoever strive against the order
which divine Providence has constituted pay usually
the penalty of their pride, and meet with affliction and
misery where they rashly hoped to find all things prosper-
ous and in conformity with their desires.

The Church, if she directs men to render obedience
chiefly and above all to God the sovereign Lord, is wrongly
and falsely beheved either to be envious of the civil power
or to arrogate to herself something of the rights of
sovereigns. On the contrary, she teaches that what is
rightly due to the civil power must be rendered to it with
a conviction and consciousness of duty. In teaching that
from God Himself comes the right of ruling, she adds a
great dignity to civil authority, and no small help towards
obtaining the obedience and good-will of the citizens.
The friend of peace and sustainer of concord, she em-
braces all with maternal love ; and, intent only upon giving
help to moral man, she teaches that to justice must be

FREEMASONRY. lOl

joined clemency, equity to authority, and moderation
to law-giving; that no one's right must be violated; that
order and public tranquillity are to be maintained; and
that the poverty of those who are in need is, as far as pos-
sible, to be relieved by public and private charity. "But
for this reason," to use the words of St. Augustine, "men
think, or would have it believed, that Christian teaching
is not suited to the good of the State; for they wish the
State to be founded not on solid virtue, but on the im-
punity of vice." Knowing these things, both princes
and people would act with political wisdom, and accord-
ing to the needs of general safety, if, instead of joining
with Freemasons to destroy the Church, they joined with
the Church in repelling their attacks.

Whatever the future may be, in this grave and wide-
spread evil it is Our duty. Venerable Brethren, to endeavor
to find a remedy. And because We know that Our best
and firmest hope of a remedy is in the power of that divine
religion which the Freemasons hate in proportion to their
fear of it, We think it to be of chief importance to call
that most saving power to Our aid against the common
enemy. Therefore, whatsoever the Roman Pontiffs Our
predecessors have decreed for the purpose of opposing the
undertakings and endeavors of the Masonic sect, and
whatsoever they have enacted to deter or withdraw men
from societies of this kind. We ratify and confirm it all by
Our Apostolic authority: and trusting greatly to the
good-will of Christians, We pray and beseech each one,
for the sake of his eternal salvation, to be most conscien-
tiously careful not in the least to depart from what the
Apostohc See has commanded in this matter.

We pray and beseech you. Venerable Brethren, to
join your efforts with Ours, and earnestly to strive for the
extirpation of this foul plague, which is creeping through
the veins of the State. You have to defend the glory of
God and the salvation of your neighbor; and with this
object of your strife before you, neither courage nor

102 FREEMASONRY.

strength will be wanting. It will be for your prudence
to judge by what means you can best overcome the
difficulties and obstacles you meet with. But as it befits
the authority of Our ofiice that We Ourselves should
point out some suitable way of proceeding, We wish it
to be your rule first of all to tear away the mask from
Freemasonry, and to let it be seen as it really is ; and by ser-
mons and Pastoral Letters to instruct the people as to
the artifices used by societies of this kind in seducing men
and enticing them into their ranks, and as to the deprav-
ity of their opinions and the wickedness of their acts.
As Our predecessors have many times repeated, let no
man think that he may for any reason whatsoever join
the Masonic sect, if he values bis CathoUc name and his
eternal salvation as he ought to value them. Let no one
be deceived by a pretence of honesty. It may seem to
some that Freemasons demand nothing that is openly
contrary to religion and morahty; but, as the whole prin-
ciple and object of the sect lies in what is vicious and
criminal, to join with these men or in any way to help
them cannot be lawful.

Further, by assiduous teaching and exhortation, the
multitude must be drawn to learn diligently the precepts
of religion; for which purpose We earnestly advise that
by opportune writings and sermons they be taught the
elements of those sacred truths in which Christian phi-
losophy is contained. The result of this will be that the
minds of men will be made sound by instruction, and
will be protected against many forms of error and in-
ducements to wickedness, especially in the present un-
bounded freedom of writing and insatiable eagerness for
learning.

Great, indeed, is the work; but in it the clergy will
share your labors if, through your care, they are fitted for
it by learning and a well-trained life. This good and
great work requires to be helped also by the industry of
those amongst the laity in whom a love of religion and

FREEMASONRY. 103

of country is joined to learning and goodness of life. By
uniting the efforts of both clergy and laity, strive, Vener-
able Brethren, to make men thoroughly know and love
the Church; for the greater their knowledge and love
of the Church, the more will they be turned away from
clandestine societies.

Wherefore, not without cause do We use this occasion
to state again what We have stated elsewhere, namely,
that the Third Order of St. Francis, whose discipline We
a little while ago prudently mitigated, should be stu-
diously promoted and sustained: for the whole object of
this Order, as constituted by its founder, is to invite men
to an imitation of Jesus Christ, to a love of the Church,
and to the observance of all Christian virtues; and there-
fore it ought to be of great influence in suppressing the
contagion of wicked societies. Let, therefore, this holy
sodality be strengthened by a daily increase. Amongst
the many benefits to be expected from it will be the great
benefit of drawing the minds of men to liberty, frater-
nity, and equaUty of right; not such as the Freemasons
absurdly imagine, but such as Jesus Christ obtained for
the human race and St. Francis aspired to: the liberty,
We mean, of sons of God, through which we may be free
from slavery to Satan or to our passions, both of them
most wicked masters; the fraternity whose origin is in
God, the common Creator and Father of all; the equality
which, founded on justice and charity, does not take away
all distinctions among men, but, out of the varieties of
fife, of duties, and of pursuits, forms that union and
that harmony which naturally tend to the benefit and
dignity of the State.

In the third place, there is a matter wisely instituted
by our forefathers, but in course of time laid aside, which
may now be used as a pattern and form of something
similar. We mean the associations or guilds of work-
men, for the protection, under the guidance of religion,
both of their temporal interests and of their morality.

104 FREEMASONRY.

If our ancestors, by long use and experience, felt the
benefit of these guilds, our age perhaps will feel it the
more by reason of the opportunity which they will give
of crushing the power of the sects. Those who support
themselves by the labor of their hands, besides being, by
their very condition, most worthy above all others of
charity and consolation, are also especially exposed to the
allurements of men whose ways he in fraud and deceit.
Therefore they ought to be helped with the greatest possi-
ble kindness, and to be invited to join associations that
are good, lest they be drawn away to others that are evil.
For this reason, We greatly wish, for the salvation of the
people, that, under the auspices and patronage of the
Bishops, and at convenient times, these guilds may be
generally restored. To Our great deUght, sodahties of
this kind and also associations of masters, have in many
places already been estabhshed, having, each class of
them, for their object to help the honest workman, to
protect and guard his children and family, and to pro-
mote in them piety. Christian knowledge, and a moral
life. And in this matter We cannot omit mentioning
that exemplary society, named after its founder, St.
Vincent, which has deserved so well of the people of the
lower order. Its acts and its aims are well known. Its
whole object is to give relief to the poor and miserable.
This it does with singular prudence and modesty; and
the less it wishes to be seen, the better is it fitted for the
exercise of Christian charity, and for the rehef of suffer-
ing.

In the fourth place, in order more easily to attain what
We wish, to your fidelity and watchfulness We commend
in a special manner the young, as being the hope of human
society. Devote the greatest part of your care to their
instruction; and do not think that any precaution can
be great enough in keeping them from masters and schools
whence the pestilent breath of the sects is to be feared
Under your guidance, let parents, religious instructors,

FREEMASONRY. 106

and priests having the cure of souls, use every oppor-
tunity, in their Christian teaching, of warning their chil-
dren and pupils of the infamous nature of these societies
so that they may learn in good time to beware of the
various and fraudulent artifices by which their promoters
are accustomed to ensnare people. And those who in-
struct the young in rehgious knowledge will act wisely,
if they induce all of them to resolve and to undertake
never to bind themselves to any society without the
knowledge of their parents, or the advice of their parish
priest or director.

We well know, however, that our united labors will by
no means suffice to pluck up these pernicious seeds from
the Lord's field, unless the Heavenly Master of the vine-
yard shall mercifully help us in our endeavors. We
must, therefore, with great and anxious care, implore of
Him the help which the greatness of the danger and of
the need requires. The sect of the Freemasons shows itself
insolent and proud of its success, and seems as if it would
put no bounds to its pertinacity. Its followers, joined
together by a wicked compact and by secret counsels,
give help one to another, and excite one another to an
audacity for evil things. So vehement an attack demands
an equal defence — namely, that all good men should
form the widest possible association of action and of
prayer. We beseech them, therefore, with united hearts,
to stand together and unmoved against the advancing
force of the sects; and in mourning and supplication to
stretch out their hands to God, praying that the Christian
name may flourish and prosper, that the Church may enjoy
its needed liberty, that those who have gone astray may
return to a right mind, that error at length may give
place to truth, and vice to virtue. Let us take as our
helper and intercessor the Virgin Mary, Mother of God,
so that she, who from the moment of her conception
overcame Satan, may show her power over these evil
sects, in which is revived the contumacious spirit of the

106 FREEMASONRY.

demon, together with his unsubdued perfidy and deceit
Let us beseech Michael, the prince of the heavenly angels,
who drove out the infernal foe; and Joseph, the spouse
of the Most Holy Virgin, and heavenly Patron of the
Catholic Church; and the great apostles, Peter and
Paul, the fathers and victorious champions of the Chris-
tian faith. By their patronage, and by perseverance
in united prayer. We hope that God will mercifully and
opportunely succor the human race, which is enconi'
passed by so many dangers.

As a pledge of heavenly gifts and of Our benevolence
We lovingly grant in the Lord, to you, Venerable Breth,
ren, and to the clergy and all the people committed ti
your watchful care. Our Apostolic Benediction.

THE CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.
Encyclical Letter Immortale Dei, November I, 1886.

The Catholic Church, that imperishable handiwork
of our all-merciful God, has for her immediate and natural
purpose the saving of souls and securing our happiness
in heaven. Yet in regard to things temporal she is the
source of benefits as manifold and great as if the chief end
of her existence were to ensure the prospering of our
earthly life. And in truth, wherever the Church has
set her foot, she has straightway changed the face of
things, and has attempered the moral tone of the people
with a new civilization, and with virtues before unknown.
All nations which have yielded to her sway have become
eminent for their cultxu*e, their sense of justice, and the
glory of their high deeds.

And yet a hackneyed reproach of old date is levelled
against her, that the Church is opposed to the rightful aims
of the civil government, and is wholly unable to afford
help in spreading that welfare and progress which justly
and naturally are sought after by every well-regulated
State. From the very beginning Christians were harassed
by slanderous accusations of this nature, and on that ac-
count were held up to hatred and execration, for being (so
they were called) enemies of the empire. The Christian
religion was moreover commonly charged with being the
cause of the calamities that so frequently befell the State,
whereas, in very truth, just punishment was being awarded
to guilty nations by an avenging God. This odious cal-
umny, with most valid reason, nerved the genius and

107

108 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

sharpened the pen of St. Augustine, who, notably in his
treatise On the City of God, set forth in so bright a light
the worth of Christian wisdom in its relation to the pubhc
weal, that he seems not merely to have pleaded the cause
of the Christians of his day, but to have refuted for all
future times impeachments so grossly contrary to truth.
The wicked proneness, however, to levy the like charges
and accusations has not been lulled to rest. Many,
indeed, are they who have tried to work out a plan of
civil society based on doctrines other than those approved
by the Cathohc Church. Nay, in these latter days a
novel scheme of law has begun here and there to gain
increase and influence, the outcome, as it is maintained,
of an age arrived at full stature, and the result of liberty
in evolution. But though endeavors of various kinds
have been ventured on, it is clear that no better mode
has been devised for the building up and ruling the State
than that which is the necessary growth of the teachings
of the Gospel. We deem it, therefore, of the highest
moment, and a strict duty of Our ApostoHc office, to
contrast with the lessons taught by Christ the novel
theories now advanced touching the State. By this
means We cherish hope that the bright shining of the
truth may scatter the mists of error and doubt, so that
one and all may see clearly the imperious law of hfe which
they are bound to follow and obey.

It is not difficult to determine what would be the form
and character of the State were it governed according
to the principles of Christian philosophy. Man's natural
instinct moves him to hve in civil society, for he cannot,
if dwelling apart, provide himself with the necessary
requirements of life, nor procure the means of developing
his mental and moral faculties. Hence it is divinely
ordained that he should lead his life — be it family, social,
or civil — with his fellow-men, amongst tvhom alone his
several wants can be adequately supplied. But as no
society can hold together unless some one be over all,

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 109

directing all to strive earnestly for the common good ; every
civilized community must have a ruling authority, and
this authority, no less than society itself, has its source
in natiire, and has, consequently, God for its author.
Hence it follows that all public power must proceed from
God. For God alone is the true and supreme Lord of the
world. Everything, without exception, must be subject
to Him, and must serve Him, so that whosoever holds
the right to govern, holds it from one sole and single
source, namely, God, the Sovereign Ruler of all. There
is no power but from God}

The right to rule is not necessarily, however, bound
up with any special mode of government. It may take
this or that form, provided only that it be of a nature to
insure the general welfare. But whatever be the nature
of the government, rulers must ever bear in mind that God
is the paramount ruler of the world, and must set Him
before themselves as their exemplar and law in the admin-
istration of the State. For, in things visible, God has
fashioned secondary causes, in which His divine action
can in some wise be discerned, leading up to the end to
which the course of the world is ever tending. In like
manner in civil society, God has always willed that there
should be a ruling authority, and that they who are
invested with it should reflect the divine power and prov-
idence in some measure over the human race.

They, therefore, who rule should rule with even-handed
justice, not as masters, but rather as fathers, for the rule
of God over man is most just, and is tempered always with
a father's kindness. Government should, moreover, be
administered for the well-being of the citizens because
they who govern others possess authority solely for the
welfare of the State. Furthermore, the civil power must
not be subservient to the advantage of any one individual
or of some few persons, inasmuch as it was established

^ Rom. xiii. 1.

110 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

for the common good of all. But if those who are in
authority rule unjustly, if they govern overbearingly or
arrogantly, and if their measures prove hurtful to the
people, they must remember that the Almighty will one
day bring them to account, the more strictly in proportion
to the sacredness of their office and pre-eminence of their
dignity. The mighty shall he mightily tormented} Then
truly will the majesty of the law meet with the dutiful and
willing homage of the people, when they are convinced
that their rulera hold authority from God, and feel that
it is a matter of justice and duty to obey them, and to
show them reverence and fealty, united to a love not unlike
that which children show their parents. Let every soul be
subject to higher powers} To despise legitimate authority,
in whomsoever vested, is unlawful, as a rebeUion against
the divine will, and whoever resists that, rushes wilfully
to destruction. He that resisteth the power resisteth the
ordinance of God, and they that resist, purchase to themselves
damnation} To cast aside obedience, and by popular
violence to incite to revolt, is therefore treason, not against
man only, but against God.

As a consequence, the State, constituted as it is, is
clearly bound to get up to the manifold and weighty
duties Hnking it to God, by the public profession of religion.
Nature and reason, which command every individual
devoutly to worship God in holiness, because we belong
to Him and must return to Him since from Him we came,
bind also the civil community by a hke law. For men
li^^ng together in society are under the power of God no
less than individuals are, and society, not less than indi-
viduals, owes gratitude to God, who gave it being and
maintains it, and whose ever-bounteous goodness enriches
it with countless blessings. Since, then, no one is allowed
to be remiss in the service due to God, and since the chief
duty of all men is to cling to religion in both its teaching

* Wisd. vi. 7. ' Rom. xiii. 1. • Ibid. xiii. 2,

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. Ill

and practice — not such religion as they may have a prefer-
ence for, but the religion which God enjoins, and which
certain and most clear marks show to be the only one true
religion — ^it is a public crime to act as though there were
no God. So, too, is it a sin in the State not to have care
for religion, as a something beyond its scope, or as of no
practical benefit; or out of many forms of reUgion to adopt
that one which chimes in with the fancy; for we are
bound absolutely to worship God in that way which He
has shown to be His will. All who rule, therefore, should
hold in honor the holy name of God, and one of their
chief duties must be to favor religion, to protect it, to
shield it under the credit and sanction of the laws, and
neither to organize nor enact any measure that may
compromise its safety. This is the bounden duty of rulers
to the people over whom they rule. For one and all are
we destined by our birth and adoption to enjoy, when
this frail and fleeting life is ended, a supreme and final
good in heaven, and to the attainment of this every
endeavor should be directed. Since, then, upon th^
depends the full and perfect happiness of mankind, the
securing of this end should be of all imaginable interests
the most urgent. Hence civil society, established for
the common welfare, should not only safeguard the well-
being of the community, but have also at heart the inter-
ests of its individual members, in such mode as not in any
way to hinder, but in every manner to render as easy as
may be, the possession of that highest and unchangeable
good for which all should seek. Wherefore, for this pur-
pose, care must especially be taken to preserve unharmed
and imimpeded the religion whereof the practice is the
link connecting man with God.

Now, it cannot be difficult to find out which is the true
religion, if only it be sought with an earnest and imbiassed
mind; for proofs are abimdant and striking. We have,
for example, the fulfilment of prophecies; miracles in
gi'eat number; the rapid spread of the faith in the midst

112 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

of enemies and in face of overwhelming obstacles; the
witness of the martyrs, and the Hke. From all these it
is evident that the only true rehgion is the one established
by Jesus Christ Himself, and which He conmaitted to His
Church to protect and to propagate.

For the only-begotten Son of God estabhshed on earth
a society which is called the Church, and to it He handed
over the exalted and divine office which He had received
from His Father, to be continued through the ages to
come. As the Father hath sent Me, I also send you} Behold
I am vyith you all days, even to the consummation of the
world} Consequently, as Jesus Christ came into the
world that men might have life and have it more abundantly,^
so also has the Church for its aim and end the eternal sal-
vation of souls, and hence it is so constituted as to open
wide its arms to all mankind, unhampered by any limit
of either time or place. Preach ye the Gospel to every
creature*

Over this mighty multitude God has Himself set ruler?
with power to govern; and He has willed that one should
be the head of all, and the chief and unerring teacher of
truth, to whom He has given the keys of the kingdom of
heaven} Feed My lambs, feed My sheep} I have prayed
for thee that thy faith fail not.''

This society is made up of men, just as civil society is,
and yet is supernatural and spiritual, on account of the
end for which it was founded, and of the means by which
it aims at attaining that end. Hence it is distinguished
and differs from civil society, and what is of highest
moment, it is a society chartered as of right divine, perfect
in its nature and in its title, to possess in itself and by
itself, through the vnW and loving kindness of its Founder,
all needful provision for its maintenance and action.
And just as the end at which the Church aims is by far the

'John XX. 21. *Mark xvi. 15. 'John xxi. 16, 17.

» Matt, xxviii. 20. * Matt. xvi. 19. ' Luke xxii. 32.

» John X. 10.

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 113

noblest of ends, so is its authority the most exalted of
all authority, nor can it be looked upon as inferior to the
civil power, or in any manner dependent upon it.

In very truth Jesus Christ gave to His apostles un-
restrained authority in regard to things sacred, together
with the genuine and most true power of making laws,
as also with the twofold right of judging and of punish-
ing, which flow from that power. All power is given to
Me in heaven and on earth: going therefore teach all na^
tions . , . teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have
commanded you. ^ And in another place, // he will not hear
them, tell the Church.'^ And again, In readiness to revenge
all disobedience.^ And once more. That . . . I may not
deal more severely according to the power which the Lord
hath given me, unto edification and not unto destruction.*
Hence it is the Church, and not the State, that is to be
man's guide to heaven. It is to the Church that God
has assigned the charge of seeing to, and legislating for,
all that concerns religion; of teaching all nations; of
spreading the Christian faith as widely as possible; in
short, of administering freely and without hindrance,
in accordance with her own judgment, all matters that
fall within its competence.

Now this authority, perfect in itself, and plainly meant
to be unfettered, so long assailed by a philosophy that
truckles to the State, the Church has never ceased to claim
for herself and openly to exercise. The apostles them-
selves were the first to uphold it, when, being forbidden by
the rulers of the Synagogue to preach the Gospel, they
com-ageously answered, We must obey God rather than men. *
This same authority the holy Fathers of the Church were
always careful to maintain by weighty arguments, accord-
ing as occasion arose, and the Roman Pontiffs have
never shrunk from defending it with unbending constancy.

* Matt, xxviii. 18-20. * 2 Cor. xiii. 10.

» Matt, xviii. 1?. » Acts v. 29.

' 2 Cor X. ft

114 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

Nay more, princes and all invested with power to rule
have themselves approved it, in theory alike and in prac-
tice. It cannot be called in question that in the making
of treaties, in the transaction of business matters, in the
sending and receiving ambassadors, and in the inter-
change of other kinds of official dealings, they have been
wont to treat with the Church as with a supreme and
legitimate power. And assuredly all ought to hold that
it was not without a singular disposition of God's provi-
dence that this power of the Church was provided with
a civil sovereignty as the surest safeguard of her inde-
pendence.

The Almighty, therefore, has appointed the charge of
the human race between two powers, the ecclesiastical
and the civil, the one being set over divine, and the other
over human, things. Each in its kind is supreme, each
has fixed limits within which it is contained, limits which
are defined by the nature and special object of the prov-
ince of each, so that there is, we may say, an orbit traced
out within which the action of each is brought into play
by its own native right. But inasmuch as each of these
two powers has authority over the same subjects, and
as it might come to pass that one and the same thing —
related differently, but stiil remaining one and the same
thing — might belong to the jurisdiction and determina-
tion of both, therefore God, who foresees all things, and
who is the author of these two powers, has marked out
the course of each in right correlation to the other. For
the powers that are, are ordained of God} Were this not
so, deplorable contentions and conflicts would often arise,
and not infrequently men, like travellers at the meeting
of two roads, would hesitate in anxiety and doubt, not
knowing what course to follow. Two powers would be
conmianding contrary things, and it would be a derelic-
tion of duty to disobey either of the two.

*Rom. xiu. 1.

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 115

But it would be most repugnant to deem thus of the
wisdom and goodness of God. Even in physical things,
albeit of a lower order, the Almighty has so combined
the forces and springs of nature with tempered action
and wondrous harmony that no one of them clashes with
any other, and all of them most fitly and aptly work
together for the great purpose of the universe. There
must, accordingly, exist, between these two powers, a
certain orderly connection, which may be compared to
the union of the soul and body in man. The nature and
scope of that connection can be determined only, as We
have laid down, by having regard to the nature of each
power, and by taking account of the relative excellence
and nobleness of their purpose. One of the two has for
its proximate and chief object the well-being of this mortal
life; the other the everlasting joys of heaven. What-
ever, therefore, in things human is of a sacred character,
whatever belongs either of its own nature or by reason
of the end to which it is referred, to the salvation of souls,
or to the worship of God, is subject to the power and
judgment of the Church. Whatever is to be ranged
under the civil and political order is rightly subject to
the civil authority. Jesus Christ has Himself given
command that what is Csesar's is to be rendered to Caesar,
and that what belongs to God is to be rendered to God.

There are, nevertheless, occasions when another method
of concord is available for the sake of peace and liberty:
We mean when rulers of the State and the Roman Pontiff
come to an understanding touching some special matter.
At such times the Church gives signal proof of her motherly
love by showing the greatest possible kindUness and in-
dulgence.

Such then, as We have briefly pointed out, is the Chris-
tian organization of civil society; not rashly or fancifully
shaped out, but educed from the highest and truest prin-
ciples, confirmed by natural reason itself.

In such an organization of the State, there is nothing

116 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

that can be thought to infringe upon the dignity of rulers,
and nothing unbecoming them; nay, so far from degrad-
ing the sovereign power in its due rights, it adds to it
permanence and lustre. Indeed, when more fully pon-
dered, this mutual co-ordination has a perfection in which
all other forms of government are lacking, and from which
excellent results would flow, were the several component
parts to keep their place and duly discharge the office
and work appointed respectively for each. And, doubt-
less, in the constitution of the State such as we have
described, divine and human things are equitably shared;
the rights of citizens assured to them, and fenced round
by divine, by natural, and by human law; the duties
incumbent on each one being wisely marked out, and
their fulfilment fittingly insured. In their uncertain
and toilsome journey towards the city made without hands,
afl see that they have safe guides and helpers on their
way, and are conscious that others have charge to pro-
tect their persons alike and their possessions, and to obtain
or preserve for them everything essential for their present
life. Furthermore, domestic society acquires that firm-
ness and solidity so needful to it, from the hoUness of
marriage, one and indissoluble, wherein the rights and
duties of husband and wife are controlled with wise justice
and equity; due honor is assured to the woman; the author-
ity of the husband is conformed to the pattern afforded
by the authority of God; the power of the father is
tempered by a due regard for the dignity of the mother
and her offspring; and the best possible provision is made
for the guardianship, welfare, and education of the children.
In political affairs, and all matters civil, the laws aim
at securing the common good, and are not framed accord-
ing to the delusive caprices and opinions of the mass of the
people, but by truth and by justice; the ruling powers
are invested with a sacredness more than human, and
are withheld from deviating from the path of duty, and
from overstepping the bounds of rightful authority; and

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 117

the obedience of citizens is rendered with a feeling of
honor and dignity, since obedience is not the servitude
of man to man, but submission to the will of God, exer-
cising His sovereignty through the mediiun of men. Now,
this being recognized as undeniable, it is felt that the
high office of rulers should be held in respect; that public
authority should be constantly and faithfully obeyed;
that no act of sedition should be committed ; and that the
civic order of the commonwealth should be maintained
as sacred.

So, also, as to the duties of each one towards his fellow-
men, mutual forbearance, kindliness, generosity, are placed
in the ascendant; the man who is at once a citizen and
a Christian is not drawn aside by conflicting obligations;
and, lastly, the abundant benefits with which the Christian
reUgion, of its very nature, endows even the m.ortal life
of man, are acquired for the community and civil society.
And this to such an extent that it may be said in sober
truth: "The condition of the commonwealth depends on
the religion with which God is worshipped: and between
one and the other there exists an intimate and abiding
connection." ^

Admirably, according to his wont, does St. Augustine,
in many passages, enlarge upon the potency of these
advantages ; but nowhere more markedly and to the point
than when he addresses the Catholic Church in the fol-
lowing words: "Thou dost teach and train children with
much tenderness, young men with much vigor, old men
with much gentleness; as the age not of the body alone,
but of the mind of each requires. Women thou dost
subject to their husbands in chaste and faithful obedience,
not for the gratifying of their lust, but for bringing forth
children, and for having a share in the family concerns.
Thou dost set husbands over their wives, not that they
may play false to the weaker sex, but according to the

* Sacr. Imp. ad Cyrillvim Alexand. et Episcopos Metrop. Cfr.
Labbe, Collect. Cone, T. iiL

118 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

requirements of sincere affection. Thou dost subject chil-
dren to their parents in a kind of free service, and dost
establish parents over their children with a benign rule.
. . . Thou joinest together, not in society only, but in a
sort of brotherhood, citizen with citizen, nation with
nation, and the whole race of men, by reminding them of
their common parentage. Thou teachest kings to look
to the interests of their people, and dost admonish the
people to be submissive to their kings. With all care
dost thou teach all to whom honor is due, and affection,
and reverence, and fear, consolation, and admonition
and exhortation, and discipline, and reproach, and punish-
ment. Thou showest that all these are not equally in-
cumbent on all, but that charity is owing to all, and wrong-
doing to none." ^ And in another place, blaming the
false wisdom of certain time-saving philosophers, he
observes: ''Let those who say that the teaching of Christ
is hurtful to the State, produce such armies as the maxims
of Jesus have enjoined soldiers to bring into being; such
governors of provinces; such husbands and wives; such
parents and children; such masters and servants; such
kings; such judges, and such payers and collectors of
tribute, as the Christian teaching instructs them to become,
and then let them dare to say that such teaching is hurt-
ful to the State. Nay, rather will they hesitate to own
that this discipUne, if duly acted up to, is the very main-
stay of the commonwealth?" ^

There was once a time when States were governed by
the principles of Gospel teaching. Then it was that the
power and divine virtue of Christian wisdom had diffused
itself throughout the laws, institutions, and morals of the
people; permeating all ranks and relations of civil society.
Then, too, the rehgion instituted by Jesus Christ, estab-
lished firmly in befitting dignity, flourished everywhere,
by the favor of princes and the legitimate protection of

• De moribus Eccl. Cathol., xxx. 63.

' Epist. 138, al 5, ad Marcellinum, ii. 15.

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 119

magistrates; and Church and State were happily united
in concord and friendly interchange of good offices. The
State, constituted in this wise, bore fruits important
beyond all expectation, whose remembrance is still, and
always will be, in renown, witnessed to as they are by
countless proofs which can never be blotted out or even
obscured by any craft of any enemies. Christian Europe
has subdued barbarous nations, and changed them from a
savage to a civilized condition, from superstition to true
worship. It victoriously rolled back the tide of Moham-
medan conquest; retained the headship of civilization;
stood forth in the front rank as the leader and teacher of
all, in every branch of national culture; bestowed on the
world the gift of true and many-sided liberty; and most
wisely founded very numerous institutions for the solace
of hiunan suffering. And if we inquire how it was able
to bring about so altered a condition of things, the
answer is — Beyond all question, in large measure, through
religion; under whose auspices so many great under-
takings were set on foot, through whose aid they were
brought to completion.

A similar state of things would certainly have con-
tinued had the agreement of the two powers been lasting.
More important results even might have been justly
looked for, had obedience waited upon the authority,
teaching, and counsels of the Church, and had this sub-
mission been specially marked by greater and more un-
swerving loyalty. For that should be regarded in the
light of an ever-changeless law which Ivo of Chartres
wrote to Pope Paschal II. : " When kingdom and priest-
hood are at one, in complete accord, the world is well
ruled, and the Church flourishes, and brings forth abun-
dant fruit. But when they are at variance, not only
smaller interests prosper not, but even things of greatest
moment fall into deplorable decay." *

^ Epist. 238.

120 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

Sad it is to call to mind how the harmful and lamentable
rage for innovation which rose to a climax in the sixteenth
century, threw first of all into confusion the Christian
religion, and next, by natural sequence, invaded the
precincts of philosophy, whence it spread amongst all
classes of society. From this source, as from a fountain-
head, burst forth all those later tenets of unbridled license
which, in the midst of the terrible upheavals of the last
century, were wildly conceived and boldly proclaimed as
the principles and foundation of that new jurisprudence
which was not merely previously unknown, but was at
variance on many points with not only the Christian, but
even with the natural law.

Amongst these principles the main one lays down that
as all men are alike by race and nature, so in like manner
all are equal in the control of their life; that each one is
so far his own master as to be in no sense under the rule
of any other individual; that each is free to think on
every subject just as he may choose, and to do whatever
he may like to do ; that no man has any right to rule over
other men. In a society grounded upon such maxims,
all government is nothing more nor less than the will of
the people, and the people, being under the power of itself
alone, is alone its own ruler. It does choose nevertheless
some to whose charge it may conmiit itself, but in such
wise that it makes over to them not the right so much as
the business of governing, to be exercised, however, in its
name.

The authority of God is passed over in silence, just as
i! there were no God ; or as if He cared nothing for human
society ; or as if men, whether in their individual capacity
or bound together in social relations, owed nothing to
God; or as if there could be a govenmient of which the
whole origin and power and authority did not reside in
God Himself. Thus, as is evident, a State becomes
nothing but a multitude, which is its own master and ruler.
And since the populace is declared to contain within itself

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 121

the spring-head of all rights and of all power, it follows
that the State does not consider itself bound by any kind
of duty towards God. Moreover, it believes that it is
not obliged to make public profession of any religion; or
to inquire which of the very many religions is the only
one true; or to prefer one religion to all the rest; or to
show to any form of religion special favor; but, on the con-
trar}-^, is bound to grant equal rights to every creed, so
that public order may not be disturbed by any particular
form of religious belief.

And it is a part of this theory that all questions that
concern religion are to be referred to private judgment;
that every one is to be free to follow whatever religion he
prefers, or none at all if he disapprove of all. From this
the following consequences logically flow: that the judg-
ment of each one's conscience is independent of all law;
that the most unrestrained opinions may be openly ex-
pressed as to the practice or omission of divine worship;
and that every one has unbounded hcense to think what-
ever he chooses and to publish abroad whatever he thinks.

Now when the State rests on foundations like those just
named — and for the time being they are greatly in favor
— it readily appears into what and how unrightful a posi-
tion the Church is driven. For when the management of
public business is in harmony with doctrines of such a
kind, the Catholic religion is allowed a standing in civil
society equal only, or inferior, to societies alien from it;
no regard is paid to the laws of the Church, and she who,
by the order and commission of Jesus Christ, has the
duty of teaching all nations, finds herself forbidden to
take any part in the instruction of the people. With
reference to matters that are of twofold jurisdiction,
they who administer the civil power lay down the law at
their own will, and in matters that appertain to religion
defiantly put aside the most sacred decrees of the Church.
They claim jurisdiction over the marriages of Catholics,
even over the bond as well as the unity and the indissolu-

122 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

bility of matrimony. They lay hands on the goods of
the clergy, contending that the Church cannot possess
property. Lastly, they treat the Church with such
arrogance that, rejecting entirely her title to the nature
and rights of a perfect society, they hold that she differs
in no respect from other societies in the State, and for
this reason possesses no right nor any legal power of action,
save that which she holds by the concession and favor
of the government. If in any State the Church retains
her own right — and this with the approval of the civil
law, owing to an agreement publicly entered into by the
two powers — men forthwith begin to cry out that matters
affecting the Church must be separated from those of
the State.

Their object in uttering this cry is to be able to violate
unpunished their plighted faith, and in all things to have
unchecked control. And as the Church, imable to aban-
don her chiefest and most sacred duties, cannot patiently
put up with this, and asks that the pledge given to her
be fully and scrupulously acted up to, contentions fre-
quently arise between the ecclesiastical and the civil
power, of which the issue commonly is, that the weaker
power yields to the one which is stronger in human re-
sources.

Accordingly, it has become the practice and deter-
mination under this condition of public polity (now so
much admired by many) either to forbid the action of
the Church altogether, or to keep her in check and bondage
to the State. PubUc enactments are in great measure
framed with this design. The drawing up of laws, the
administration of State affairs, the godless education of
youth, the spohation and suppression of religious orders,
the overthrow of the temporal power of the Roman
Pontiff, all alike aim at this one end — to paralyze the
action of Christian institutions, to cramp to the utmost th**
freedom of the Catholic Church, and to curtail "her
every single prerogative.

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 123

Now, natural reason itself proves convincingly that
such concepts of the government of a State are wholly
at variance with the truth. Nature itself bears witness
that all power, of every kind, has its origin from God,
who is its chief and most august source.

The sovereignty of the people, however, and this without
any reference to God, is held to reside in the multitude;
which is doubtless a doctrine exceedingly well calcu-
lated to flatter and to inflame many passions, but which
lacks all reasonable proof, and all power of insuring public
safety and preserving order. Indeed from the prevalence
of this teaching, things have come to such a pass that
many hold as an axiom of civil jurisprudence that seditions
may be rightfully fostered. For the opinion prevails that
princes are nothing more than delegates chosen to carr}--
out the wiU of the people; whence it necessarily follows
that all things are as changeable as the will of the people,
so that risk of public disturbance is ever hanging over
our heads.

To hold therefore that there is no difference in matters
of reUgion between forms that are unlike each other, and
even contrary to each other, most clearly leads in the
end to the rejection of all religion in both theory and
practice. And this is the same thing as atheism, however
it may differ from it in name. Men who really believe
in the existence of God must, in order to be consistent
with themselves and to avoid absvird conclusions, imder-
stand that differing modes of divine worship involving
dissimilarity and conflict even on most important points,
cannot all be equally probable, equally good, and equally
acceptable to God.

So, too, the liberty of thinking, and of pubUshing,
whatsoever each one likes, without any hindrance, is
not in itself an advantage over which society can wisely
rejoice. On the contrary, it is the fountain-head and
origin of many evils. Liberty is a power perfecting man,
and hence should hav« truth and goodness for its object.

124 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

But the character of goodness and truth cannot be changed
at option. These remain ever one and the same, and are
no less unchangeable than Nature herself. If the mind
assents to false opinions, and the will chooses and follows
after what is wrong, neither can attain its native fulness,
but both must fall from their native dignity into an abyss
of corruption. Whatever, therefore, is opposed to virtue
and truth, may not rightly be brought temptingly before
the eye of man, much less sanctioned by the favor and
protection of the law. A well-spent life is the only pass-
port to heaven, whither all are bound, and on this account
the State is acting against the laws and dictates of nature
whenever it permits the license of opinion and of action
to lead minds astray from truth and souls away from the
practice of virtue. To exclude the Church, founded by
God Himself, from the business of life, from the power
of making laws, from the training of youth, from domestic
society, is a grave and fatal error. A State from which
religion is banished can never be well regulated; and
already perhaps more than is desirable is known of the
nature and tendency of the so-called civil philosophy
of life and morals. The Church of Christ is the true and
sole teacher of virtue and guardian of morals. She it is
who preserves in their purity the principles from which
duties flow, and by setting forth most urgent reasons for
virtuous life, bids us not only to turn away from wicked
deeds, but even to curb all movements of the mind that
are opposed to reason, even though they be not carried
out in action.

To wish the Church to be subject to the civil power in
the exercise of her duty is a great folly and a sheer in-
justice. Whenever this is the case, order is disturbed,
for things natural are put above things supernatural; the
many benefits which the Church, if free to act, would
confer on society are either prevented or at least lessened
in number; and a way is prepared for enmities and con-
tentions between the two powers, with how evil result

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 125

to both the issue of events has taught us only too fre-
quently.

Doctrines such as these, which cannot be approved by
human reason, and most seriously affect the whole civil
order, Our predecessors the Roman Pontiffs (well aware
of what their apostoUc office required of them) have
never allowed to pass uncondemned. Thus Gregory XVI.
in his EncycHcal Letter Mirari vos, of date August 15,
1832, inveighed with weighty words against the sophisms,
which even at his time were being publicly inculcated — •
namely, that no preference should be shown for any par-
ticular form of worship ; that it is right for individuals to
form their own personal judgments about religion; that
each man's conscience is his sole and all-sufficing guide;
and that it is lawful for every man to publish his own
views, whatever they may be, and even to conspire against
the State. On the question of the separation of Church
and State the same Pontiff writes as follows: "Nor can
We hope for happier results either for rehgion or for the
civil government from the wishes of those who desire
that the Church be separated from the State, and the
concord between the secular and ecclesiastical authority
be dissolved. It is clear that these men, who yearn for
a shameless Uberty, live in dread of an agreement which
has always been fraught with good, and advantageous
alike to sacred and civil interests." To the like effect,
also, as occasion presented itself, did Pius IX. brand
publicly many false opinions which were gaining ground,
and afterwards ordered them to be condensed in sum-
mary form in order that in this sea of error Catholics
might have a hght which they might safely follow.^

* It will suffice to indicate a few of them :

Prop. xix. The Church is not a true, perfect, and wholly inde-
pendent society, possessing its own unchanging rights conferred
upon it by its Divine Founder; but it is for the civil power to
determine what are the rights of the Church, and the limits within
which it may use them

126 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES

From these pronouncements of the Popes it is evident
that the origin of public power is to be sought for in God
Himself, and not in the multitude, and that it is repugnant
to reason to allow free scope for sedition. Again, that it is
not lawful for the State, any more than for the individual,
either to disregard all religious duties or to hold in equal
favor different kinds of religion; that the unrestrained
freedom of thinking and of openly making known one's
thoughts is not inherent in the rights of citizens, and is
by no means to be reckoned worthy of favor and support.
In like manner it is to be understood that the Church no
less than the State itself is a society perfect in its own
nature and its own right, and that those who exercise
sovereignty ought not so to act as to compel the Church
to become subservient or subject to them, or to hamper
her liberty in the management of her own affairs, or to
despoil her in any way of the other privileges conferred
upon her by Jesus Christ. In matters, however, of mixed
jurisdiction, it is in the highest degree consonant to na-
ture, as also to the designs of God, that so far from one
of the powers separating itself from the other, or still less
coming into conflict with it, complete harmony, such as
is suited to the end for which each power exists, should
be preserved between them.

This then is the teaching of the Catholic Church con-
cerning the constitution and government of the State.
By the words and decrees just cited, if judged dispas-
sionately, no one of the several forms of government
is in itself condemned, inasmuch as none of them contain

Prop, xxxix. The State, as the origin and source of all rights
enjoys a right that is unlimited.

Prop. Iv. The Church must be separated from the State, and
the State from the Church.

Prop. Ixxix. ... It is untrue that the civil liberty of every form
of worship, and the full power given to all of openly and publicly
manifesting whatsoever opinions and thoughts, lead to the more
ready corruption of the minds and morals of the people, and to the
spread of the plague of religious indifference.

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 127

anything contrary to Catholic doctrine, and all of them
are capable, if wisely and justly managed, to insure the
welfare of the State. Neither is it blameworthy in itself,
in any manner, for the people to have a share, greater
or less, in the government : for at certain times, and under
certain laws, such participation may not only be of benefit
to the citizens, but may even be of obhgation. Nor is
there any reason why any one should accuse the Church
of being wanting in gentleness of action or largeness of
view, or of being opposed to real and lawful liberty. The
Church, indeed, deems it unlawful to place the various
forms of divine worship on the same footing as the true
religion, but does not, on that account, condemn those
rulers who, for the sake of securing some great good or
of hindering some great evil, allow patiently custom or
usage to be a kind of sanction for each kind of religion
having its place in the State. And in fact the Church is
wont to take earnest heed that no one shall be forced to
embrace the Catholic faith against his will, for, as St.
Augustine wisely reminds us, "Man cannot believe other-
wise than of his own free will."

In the same way the Church cannot approve of that
liberty which begets a contempt of the most sacred laws
of God, and casts off the obedience due to lawful authority,
for this is not liberty so much as license, and is most
correctly styled by St. Augustine the "liberty of self-
ruin," and by the apostle St. Peter the cloak of malice}
Indeed, since it is opposed to reason, it is a true slavery,
for whosoever committeth sin is the slave of sin? On the
other hand, that liberty is truly genuine, and to be sought
after, which in regard to the individual does not allow
men to be the slaves of error and of passion, the worst of
all masters; which, too, in public administration guides
the citizens in wisdom and provides for them increased
means of well-being; and which, further, protects the
State from foreign interference.

» 1 Peter ii. 16, » John viii. 34.

128 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

This honorable liberty, alone worthy of human beings^
the Church approves most highly and has never slackened
her endeavor to preserve, strong and unchanged, among
nations. And in truth whatever in the State is of chief
avail for the common welfare; whatever has been usefully
established to curb the license of rulers who are opposed
to the true interests of the people, or to keep in check the
leading authorities from unwarrantably interfering in
municipal or family affairs; — whatever tends to uphold
the honor, manhood, and equal rights of individual citi-
zens ; — of all these things, as the monuments of past ages
bear witness, the Catholic Church has always been the
originator, the promotor, or the guardian. Ever there-
fore consistent with herself, while on the one hand she
rejects that exorbitant liberty which in individuals and
in nations ends in license or in thraldom, on the other
hand, she willingly and most gladly welcomes whatever
improvements the age brings forth, if these really secure
the prosperity of life here below, which is as it were a
stage in the journey to the life that will know no ending.

Therefore, when it is said that the Church is jealous
of modern political systems, and that she repudiates the
discoveries of modern research, the charge is a ridiculous
and groundless calumny. Wild opinions she does repu-
diate, wicked and seditious projects she does condemn,
together with that habit of mind which points to the
beginning of a wilful departure from God. But as all
truth must necessarily proceed from God, the Church
recognizes in all truth that is reached by research, a trace
of the divine intelligence. And as all truth in the natural
order is powerless to destroy belief in the teachings of
revelation, but can do much to confirm it, and as every
newly discovered truth may serve to further the knowledge
or the praise of God, it follows that whatsoever spreads
the range of knowledge will always be willingly and even
joyfully welcomed by the Church. She will always en-
courage and promote, as she does in other branches of

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 129

knowledge, all study occupied with the investigation of
nature. In these pursuits, should the human intellect
discover anything not known before, the Church makes
no opposition. She never objects to search being made
for things that minister to the refinements and comforts
of life So far indeed from opposing these she is now,
as she ever has been, hostile alone to indolence and sloth,
and earnestly wishes that the talents of men may bear
more and more abundant fruit by cultivation and exer-
cise. Moreover she gives encouragement to every kind of
art and handicraft, and through her influence, directing
all strivings after progress towards virtue and salvation,
she labors to prevent man's intellect and industry from
turning him away from God and from heavenly things.

All this, though so reasonable and full of counsel, finds
little favor nowadays when States not only refuse to
conform to the rules of Christian wisdom, but seem even
anxious to recede from them further and further on each
successive day. Nevertheless, since truth when brought
to light is wont, of its own nature, to spread itself far
and wide, and gradually take possession of the minds
of men. We, moved by the great and holy duty of Our
apostolic mission to all nations, speak, as We are bound
to do, with freedom. Our eyes are not closed to the
spirit of the times. We repudiate not the assured and
useful improvements of our age, but devoutly wish affairs
of State to take a safer course than they are now taking,
and to rest on a more firm foundation without injury to
the true freedom of the people; for the best parent and
guardian of liberty amongst men is truth. The truth
shall make you free}

If in the difficult times in which our lot is cast, Catholics
will give ear to Us, as it behooves them to do, they will
readily see what are the duties of each one in matters of
opinion as well as action. As regards opinion, whatever

*John viu. 32.

130 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

the Roman Pontiffs have hitherto taught, or shall here-
after teach, must be held with a firm grasp of mind, and,
so often as occasion requires, must be openly professed.

Especially with reference to the so-called "Liberties'*
which are so greatly coveted in these days, all must stand
by the judgment of the Apostolic See, and have the same
mind. Let no man be deceived by the outward appear-
ance of these liberties, but let each one reflect whence these
have had their origin, and by what efforts they are every-
where upheld and promoted. Experience has made us
well acquainted with their results to the State, since
everywhere they have borne fruits which the good and wise
bitterly deplore. If there really exist anywhere, or if we
in imagination conceive, a State, waging wanton and
t)Tannical war against Christianity, and if we compare
with it the modern form of government just described,
this latter may seem the more endurable of the two. Yet,
undoubtedly, the principles on which such a government
is grounded are, as We have said, of a nature which no
one can approve.

Secondly, action may relate to private and domestic
matters, or to matters public. As to private affairs, the
first duty is to conform life and conduct to the gospel
precepts, and to refuse to shrink from this duty when
Christian virtue demands some sacrifice difficult to make.
All, moreover, are boimd to love the Church as their com-
mon mother, to obey her laws, promote her honor, defend
her rights, and to endeavor to make her respected and
loved by those over whom they have authority. It is
also of great moment to the public welfare to take a prudent
part in the business of municipal administration, and to
endeavor above all to introduce effectual measures, so
that, as becomes a Christian people, pubUc provision
may be made for the instruction of youth in religion and
true morality. Upon these things the well-being of every
State greatly depends.

Furthermore, it is in general fitting and salutary that

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 131

Catholics should extend their efforts beyond this restricted
sphere, and give their attenton to national politics. We
say in general, because these Our precepts are addressed
to aU nations. However, it may in some places be true
that, for most urgent and just reasons, it is by no means
expedient for Catholics to engage in public affairs or to
take an active part in politics. Nevertheless, as We have
laid down, to take no share in public matters would be
equally as wrong (We speak in general) as not to have
concern for, or not to bestow labor upon, the common
good. And this all the more because Catholics are admon-
ished, by the very doctrines which they profess, to be
upright and faithful in the discharge of duty, while if they
hold aloof, men whose principles offer but small guarantee
for the welfare of the State will the more readily seize the
reins of government. This would tend also to the injury
of the Christian religion, forasmuch as those would come
into power who are badly disposed towards the Church,
and those who are willing to befriend her would be deprived
of all influence.

It follows therefore clearly that Catholics have just
reasons for taking part in the conduct of public
affairs.

For in so doing they assume not the responsibility of
approving what is blameworthy in the actual methods of
government, but seek to turn these very methods, so far
as is possible, to the genuine and true public good, and to
use their best endeavors at the same time to infuse, as it
were, into all the veins of the State the healthy sap and
blood of Christian wisdom and virtue. The morals and
ambitions of the heathens differed widely from those of
the Gospel, yet Christians were to be seen living undefiled
everywhere in the midst of pagan superstition, and, while
always true to themselves, coming to the front boldly
wherever an opening was presented. Models of loyalty
to their rulers, submissive, so far as was permitted, to the
sovereign power, they shed around them on every sida

132 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

a halo of sanctity; they strove to be helpful to their
brethren, and to attract others to the wisdom of Jesus
Christ, yet were bravely ready to withdraw from pubhc
life, nay, even to lay down their life, if they could not
without loss of virtue retain honors, dignities, and ofHces.
For this reason Christian ways and manners speedily found
their way not only into private houses but into the camp,
the senate, and even into the imperial palaces. "We
are but of yesterday," wrote TertulMan, "yet we swarm
in aU your institutions, we crowd your cities, islands,
villages, towns, assembhes, the army itself, your wards
and corporations, the palace, the senate, and the law
courts." So that the Christian faith, when once it be-
came lawful to make public profession of the Gospel,
appeared in most of the cities of Europe, not like an infant
crying in its cradle, but already grown up and full oi
vigor.

In these our days it is well to revive these examples oE
our forefathers. First and foremost it is the duty of alii
Catholics worthy of the name and wishful to be knoMii
as most loving children of the Church, to reject without
swerving whatever is inconsistent with so fair a title; to
make use of popular institutions, so far as can honestly be
done, for the advancement of truth and righteousness;
to strive that liberty of action shall not transgress the
bounds marked out by nature and the law of God; to
endeavor to bring back all civil society to the pattern
and form of Christianity which We have described. It
is barely possible to lay down any fixed method by which
such purposes are to be attained, because the means
adopted must suit places and times widely differiug from
one another. Nevertheless, above all things, unity of
aim must be preserved, and similarity must be sought
after in all plans of action. Both these objects will be
carried into effect without fail if all will follow the guid-
ance of the ApostoUc See as their rule of hfe and obey the
bishops whom the Holy Ghost has placed to rule the

CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES. 133

Church of God,* The defence of CathoHcism, indeed,
necessarily demands that in the profession of doctrines
taught by the Church all shall be of one mind and all
steadfast in believing; and care must be taken never to
connive, in any way, at false opinions, never to withstand
them less strenuously than truth allows. In mere matters
of opinion it is permissible to discuss things with modera-
tion, with a desire of searching into the truth, without
unjust suspicion or angry recriminations.

Hence, lest concord be broken by rash charges, let this
be understood by all, that the integrity of Catholic faith
cannot be reconciled with opinions verging on Natural-
ism or Rationalism, the essence of which is utterly to steril-
ize Christianity, and to instal in society the supremacy of
man to the exclusion of God. Further, it is unlawful to '
follow one line of conduct in private and another in public,
respecting privately the authority of the Church, but
publicly rejecting it; for this would amount to joining
together good and evil, and to putting man in conflict
with himself; whereas he ought always to be consistent,
and never in the least point nor in any condition of life to
swerve from Christian virtue.

But in matters merely political, as for instance the best
form of government, and this or that system of adminis-
tration, a difference of opinion is lawful. Those, therefore,
whose piety is in other respects known, and whose minds
are ready to accept in all obedience the decrees of the
Apostolic See, cannot in justice be accounted as bad men
because they disagree as to subjects We have mentioned;
and still graver wrong will be done them, if — as We have
more than once perceived with regret — they are accused
of violating, or of wavering in, the Catholic faith.

Let this be well borne in mind by all who are in the
habit of publishing their opinions, and above all by jour-
nalists. In the endeavor to secure interests of the highest

^Acts XX. 28.

134 CHRISTIAN CONSTITUTION OF STATES.

order there is no room for intestine strife or party rivalries;
since all should aim with one mind and purpose to make
safe that which is the common object of all — the main-
tenance of Religion and of the State. If, therefore, there
have hitherto been dissensions, let them henceforth be
gladly buried in oblivion. If rash or injurious acts have
been committed, whoever may have been at fault, let
mutual charity make amends, and let the past be redeemed
by a special submission of all to the Apostolic See.

In this way Catholics will attain two most excellent
results : they will become helpers to the Church in preserv-
ing and propagating Christian wisdom ; and they will confer
the greatest benefit on civil society, the safety of which is
exceedingly imperilled by evil teachings and bad passions.

This, Venerable Brethren, is what We have thought
it Our duty to expound to all nations of the Catholic
world touching the Christian constitution of States and
the duties of individual citizens.

It behooves Us now with earnest prayer to implore
the protection of heaven, beseeching God, who alone
can enlighten the minds of men and move their will, to
bring about those happy ends for which We yearn and
strive, for His greater glory and the general salvation of
mankind. As a happy augury of the divine benefits,
and in token of Our paternal benevolence, to you. Vener-
able Brothers, and to the clergy and to the whole people
committed to your charge and vigilance, We grant lov-
ingly in the Lord the Apostolic Benediction.

HUMAN LIBERTY.

Encyclical Letter Libertas Prcestantissimum, June 20, 1888.

Liberty, the highest of natural endowment, being
the portion only of intellectual or rational natures, con-
fers on man this dignity — that he is in the hand of his
counsel and has power over his actions. But the manner
in which such dignity is exercised is of the greatest moment,
inasmuch as on the use that is made of liberty the highest
good and the greatest evil alike depend. Man, indeed,
is free to obey his reason, to seek moral good, and to strive
unswervdngly after his last end. Yet he is free also to
' turn aside to all other things ; and, in pursuing the empty
semblance of good, to disturb rightful order and to fall
headlong into the destruction which he has voluntarily
chosen. The Redeemer of mankind, Jesus Christ, having
restored and exalted the original dignity of nature, vouch-
safed special assistance to the will of man; and by the
gifts of His grace here, and the promise of heavenly bliss
hereafter. He raised it to a nobler state. In like manner
this great gift of nature has ever been, and always will
be, deservingly cherished by the Cathohc Church; for
to her alone has been committed the charge of handing
down to all ages the benefits purchased for us by Jesus
Christ. Yet there are many who imagine that the Church
is hostile to human liberty. Having a false and absurd
notion as to what liberty is, either they pervert the very
idea of freedom, or they extend it at their pleasure to
many things in respect of which man cannot rightly be
regarded as free.

135

136 HUMAN LIBERTY.

We have on other occasions, and especially in Our
Encyclical Letter Immortale Dei, in treating of the so-
called modem liberties, distinguished between their good
and evil elements; and We have shown that whatsoever
is good in those liberties is as ancient as truth itself, and
that the Church has always most wilUngly approved and
practised that good: but whatsoever has been added as
new is, to tell the plain truth, of a vitiated kind, the
fruit of the disorders of the age, and of an uisatiate long-
ing after novelties. Seeing, however, that many cling
so obstinately to their own opinion in this matter as to
imagine these modern liberties, cankered as they are,
to be the greatest glory of our age, and the very basis
of civil Hfe, without which no perfect government can
be conceived, We feel it a pressing duty, for the sake of
the common good, to treat separately of this subject.

It is with moral liberty, whether in individuals or in
communities, that We proceed at once to deal. But,
first of all, it will be well to speak briefly of natural liberty;
for, though it is distinct and separate from moral liberty,
natural freedom is the fountain-head from which liberty
of whatsoever kind flows, swa vi suaque sponte. The
unanimous consent and judgment of men, which is the
trusty voice of nature, recognizes this natural liberty in
those only who are endowed with intelligence or reason;
and it is by his use of this that man is rightly regarded
as responsible for his actions. For, while other animate
creatures follow their senses, seeking good and avoiding
evil only by instinct, man has reason to guide him in each
and every act of his life. Reason sees that whatever
things that are held to be good upon earth, may exist or
may not, and discerning that none of them are of necessity
for us, it leaves the will free to choose what it pleases.
But man can judge of this contingency, as We say, only
because he has a soul that is simple, spiritual, and in-
tellectual— a soul, therefore, which is not produced by
matter, and does not depend on matter for its existence;

HUMAN LIBERTY. 137

but which is created immediately by God, and, far sur-
passing the condition of things material, has a life and
action of its own — so that, knowing the unchangeable and
necessary reasons of what is true and good, it sees that
no particular kind of good is necessary to us. When,
therefore, it is estabhshed that man's soul is immortal
and endowed with reason and not bound up with things
material, the foundation of natural liberty is at once most
firmly laid.

As the Catholic Church declares in the strongest terms
the simplicity, spirituality, and immortality of the soul,
so mth unequalled constancy and publicity she ever also
asserts its freedom. These truths she has always taught,
and has sustained them as a dogma of faith; and when-
soever heretics or innovators have attacked the Uberty
of man, the Church has defended it and protected this
noble possession from destruction. History bears witness
to the energy with which she met the fury of the Mani-
cheans and others hke them; and the earnestness with
which in later years she defended human liberty in the
Council of Trent, and against the followers of Jansenius,
is known to all. At no time, and in no place, has she
held truce with fatalism.

Liberty, then, as We have said, belongs only to those
who have the gift of reason or inteUigence. Considered
as to its nature, it is the faculty of choosing means fitted
for the end proposed; for he is master of his actions who
can choose one thing out of many. Now, since every-
thing chosen as a means is viewed as good or useful, and
since good, as such, is the proper object of our desire,
it follows that freedom of choice is a property of the will,
or rather is identical with the will in so far as it has in
its action the faculty of choice. But the will cannot
proceed to act until it is enlightened by the knowledge
possessed by the intellect. In other words, the good
wished by the will is necessarily good in so far as it is
known by the intellect; and this the more, because in

138 HUMAN LIBERTY.

all voluntary acts choice is subsequent to a judgment
upon the truth of the good presented, declaring to which
good preference should be given. No sensible man can
doubt that judgment is an act of reason, not of the will.
The end, or object, both of the rational will and of its
liberty is that good only which is in conformity with
reason.

Since, however, both these faculties are imperfect, it
is possible, as is often seen, that the reason should pro-
pose something which is not really good, but which has
the appearance of good, and that the will should choose
accordingly. For, as the possibihty of error, and actual
error, are defects of the mind and attest its imperfection,
so the pursuit of what has a false appearance of good,
though a proof of our freedom, just as a disease is
a proof of our vitality, implies defect in human liberty.
The will also, simply because of its dependence on the
reason, no sooner desires anything contrar}'' thereto, than
it abuses its freedom of choice and corrupts its very
essence. Thus it is that the infinitely perfect God, al-
though supremely free, because of the supremacy of Hi»
intellect and of His essential goodness, nevertheless
cannot choose evil; neither can the angels and saints,
who enjoy the beatific vision. St. Augustine and others
urged most admirably against the Pelagians, that, if the
possibihty of deflection from good belonged to the essence
or perfection of liberty, then God, Jesus Christ, and the
angels and saints, who have not this power, would have
no hberty at all, or would have less hberty than man has
in his state of pilgrimage and imperfection. This sub-
ject is often discussed by the Angelic Doctor in his demon-
stration that the possibility of sinning is not freedom,
but slavery. It will suffice to quote his subtle com-
mentary on the words of our Lord: Whosoever committeth
*in is the slave of sin} / 'f Everything," he says, **is that

'John viiL 34.

HUMAN LIBERTY. 139

which belongs to it naturally. When, therefore, it acts
through a power outside itself, it does not act of itself,
but through another, that is, as a slave. But man is
by nature rational. When, therefore, he acts according
to reason, he acts of himself and according to his free
will; and this is liberty. Whereas, when he sins, he acts
in opposition to reason, is moved by another, and is the
victim of foreign misapprehensions. Therefore, Whoso-
ever committeth sin is the slave of sin.'' Even the heathen
philosophers clearly recognized this truth, especially
they who held that the wise man alone is free; and by
the term "wise man" was meant, as is well known, the
man trained to live in accordance with his nature, that
is, in justice and virtue, j -6

Such then being the condition of human liberty, it
necessarily stands in need of light and strength to direct
its actions to good and to restrain them from evil. With-
out this the freedom of our will would be our ruin. First

"^ of all there must be law; that is, a fixed rule of teaching
what is to be done and what is to be left undone. This
rule cannot affect the lower animals in any true sense,
since they act of necessity, following their natural in-
stinct, and cannot of themselves act in any other way.
On the other hand, as was said above, he who is free can
either act or not act, can do this or do that, as he pleases,
because his judgment precedes his choice. And his
judgment not only decides what is right or wrong of its

I own nature, but also what is practically good and there-
fore to be chosen, and what is practically evil and there-
fore to be avoided. In other words the reason prescribes
to the will what it should seek after or shun, in order to the
eventual attainment of man's last end, for the sake of
which all his actions ought to be performed. This ordi-
nation of reason is called law. In man's free will, there-
fore, or in the moral necessity of our voluntary acts being
in accordance with reason, lies the very root of the neces-
sity of law. Nothing more foolish can be uttered or

140 HUMAN LIBERTY.

conceived than the notion that because man is free by
nature, he is therefore exempt from law. Were this
the case, it would follow that to become free we must
be deprived of reason; whereas the truth is that we are
bound to submit to law precisely because we are free
by our very nature. For law is the guide of man's actions ;
it turns him towards good by its rewards, and deters
him from evil by its punishments.

Foremost in this office comes the natural law, which is
written and engraved in the mind of every man; and
this is nothing but our reason, commanding us to do
right and forbidding sin. Nevertheless all prescriptions
of human reason can have force of law only inasmuch
as they are the voice and the interpreters of some higher
power on which our reason and liberty necessarily de-
pend. For, since the force of law consists in the imposing
of obligations and the granting of rights, authority is the
one and only foundation of all law — the power, that is, of
fixing duties and defining rights, as also of assigning the
necessary sanctions of reward and chastisement to each
and all of its commands. But all this, clearly, cannot
be found in man, if, as his own supreme legislator, he
is to be the rule of his own actions. It follows there-
fore that the law of nature is the same thing as the eternal
law, implanted in rational creatures, and inclining them
to their right action and end; and can be nothing else but
the eternal reason of God, the Creator and Ruler of all
the world. To this rule of action and restraint of evil
God has vouchsafed to give special and most suitable
aids for strengthening and ordering the human wall.
The first and most excellent of these is the power of His
divine grace, whereby the mind can be enlightened and the
will wholesomely invigorated and moved to the constant
pursuit of moral good, so that the use of our inborn Uberty
becomes at once less difficult and less dangerous. Not
that the divine assistance hinders in any way the free
movement of our will; just the contrary, for grace works

HUMAN LIBERTY. \A1

inwardly in man and in harmony with his natural inclina-
tions, since it flows from the very Creator of his mind
and will, by whom all things are moved in conformity
with their nature. As the AngeUc Doctor points out,
it is because divine grace comes from the Author of nature,
that it is so admirably adapted to be the safeguard of
all natures, and to maintain the character, efficiency,
and operations of each.

What has been said of the Uberty of individuals is no
less applicable to them when considered as bound to-
gether in civil society. For, what reason and the natural
law do for individuals, that human law, promulgated for
their good, does for the citizens of States. Of the laws
enacted by men, some are concerned with what is good
or bad by its very nature ; and they command men to follow
after what is right and to shun what is wrong, adding at
the same time a suitable sanction. But such laws by no
means derive their origin from civil society; because just
as civil society did not create human nature, so neither
can it be said to be the author of the good which befits
human nature, or of the evil which is contrary to it.
Laws come before men live together in society, and have
their origin in the natural, and consequently in the eternal,
law. The precepts, therefore, of the natural law, con-
tained bodily in the laws of men, have not merely the force
of human law, but they possess that higher and more
august sanction which belongs to the law of nature and
the eternal law. And within the sphere of this kind of
laws, the duty of the civil legislator is, mainly, to keep
the community in obedience by the adoption of a common
discipline and by putting restraint upon refractory and
viciously inchned men, so that, deterred from evil, they
may turn to what is good, or at any rate may avoid caus-
ing trouble and disturbance to the State. Now there
are other enactments of the civil authority, which do not
follow directly, but somewhat remotely, from the natural
law, and decide many points which the law of nature

U'2 HUMAN LIBERTY.

treats only in a general and indefinite way. For instance,
though nature commands all to contribute to the pubhc
peace and prosperity, still whatever belongs to the man-
ner and circumstances, and conditions under which such
service is to be rendered must be determined by the wisdom
of men and not by Nature herself. It is in the constitution
of these particular rules of life, suggested by reason and
prudence, and put forth by competent authority, that
himian law, properly so called, consists, binding all citi-
zens to work together for the attainment of the common
end proposed to the community, and forbidding them to
depart from this end; and in so far as human law is in
conformity with the dictates of nature, leading to what
is good, and deterring from evil.

From this it is manifest that the eternal law of God
is the sole standard and rule of human hberty, not only
in each individual man, but also in the community and
civil society which men constitute when united. There-
fore, the true liberty of human society does not consist
in every man doing what he pleases, for this would simply
end in turmoil and confusion, and bring on the overthrow
of the State; but rather in this, that through the injunc-
tions of the civil law all may more easily conform to the
prescriptions of the eternal law. Likewise, the liberty
of those who are in authority does not consist in the
power to lay unreasonable and capricious commands
upon their subjects, which would equally be criminal
and would lead to the ruin of the commonwealth; but
the binding force of human laws is in this, that they are to
be regarded as applications of the eternal law, and in-
capable of sanctioning anything which is not contained
in the eternal law, as in the principle of all law. Thus
St. Augustine most wisely says: " I think that you can see,
at the same time, that there is nothing just and lawful
in that temporal law, unless what men have gathered
from this eternal law." * If, then, by any one in author-
' De Libero Arbitrio, lib. i. cap. 6, n. 15.

HUMAN LIBERTY. 143

iiy, something be sanctioned out of conformity with the
principles of right reason, and consequently hurtful to
the commonwealth, such an enactment can have no
binding force of law, as being no rule of justice, but cer-
tain to lead men away from that good which is the very
end of civil society.

Therefore, the nature of human hberty, however it be
considered, whether in individuals or in society, whether
in those who command or in those who obey, supposes
the necessity of obedience to some supreme and eternal
law, which is no other than the authority of God, com-
manding good and forbidding evil. And so far from this
most just authority of God over men diminishing, or
even destroying their liberty, it protects and perfects it,
for the real perfection of all creatures is found in the
prosecution and attainment of their respective ends; but
the supreme end to which human liberty must aspire is
God.

These precepts of the truest and highest teaching, made
known to us by the light of reason itself, the Church,
instructed by the example and doctrine of her divine
Author, has ever propagated and asserted; for she has
ever made them the measure of her office and of her teach-
ing to the Christian nations. As to morals, the laws of
the Gospel not only immeasurably surpass the wisdom of
the heathen, but are an invitation and an introduction to
a state of holiness unknown to the ancients; and, bringing
man nearer to God, they make him at once the possessor
of a more perfect liberty. Thus the powerful influence
of the Church has ever been manifested in the custody
and protection of the civil and political liberty of the
people. The enumeration of its merits in this respect
does not belong to our present purpose. It is sufficient
to recall the fact that slavery, that old reproach of the
heathen nations, was mainly abolished by the beneficent
efforts of the Church. The impartiality of law and the
true brotherhood of man were first asserted by Jesus Christ;

144 HUMAN LIBERTY.

and His apostles re-echoed His voice when they declared
that in future there was to be neither Jew, nor Gentile,
nor Barbarian, nor Scythian, but all were brothers in
Christ. So powerful, so conspicuous in this respect, is
the influence of the Church, that experience abundantly
testifies how savage customs are no longer possible in any
land where she has once set her foot; but that gentleness
speedily takes the place of cruelty, and the light of truth
quickly dispels the darkness of barbarism. Nor has the
Church been less lavish in the benefits she has conferred
on civilized nations in every age, either by resisting the
tyranny of the wicked, or by protecting the innocent and
helpless from injury; or finally by using her influence in
the support of any form of government which commended
itself to the citizens at home, because of its justice, or was
feared by their enemies without, because of its power.

Moreover, the highest duty is to respect authority, and
obediently to submit to just law; and by this the men-
bers of a community are effectually protected from the
wrongdoing of evil men. Lawful power is from God,
and whosoever resisteth avihority resisteth the ordinance of
God; wherefore obedience is greatly ennobled when sub-
jected to an authority which is the most just and supreme
of all. But where the power to command is wanting,
or where a law is enacted contrary to reason, or to the
eternal law, or to some ordinance of God, obedience is
unlawful, lest, while obeying man, we become disobedient
to God. Thus, an effectual barrier being opposed to
tyranny, the authority in the State will not have all its
own way, but the interests and rights of all will be safe-
guarded— the rights of individuals, of domestic society,
and of all the members of the commonwealth; all being
free to live according to law and right reason; and in
this, as We have shown, true liberty really consists.

If when men discuss the question of liberty they were
careful to grasp its true and legitimate meaning such as
reason and reasoning have just explained, they would

HUMAN LIBERTY. 145

never venture to affix such a calumny on the Church as
to assert that she is the foe to individual and public liberty.
But many there are who follow in the footsteps of Lucifer,
and adopt as their own his rebellious cry, "I will not
serve"; and consequently substitute for true liberty
what is sheer and most foolish license. Such, for instance,
are the men belonging to that widely spread and powerful
organization, who, usurping the name of liberty, style
themselves Liberals .

What Naturalists or Rationalists aim at in philosophy,
that the supporters of Liberalism, carrying out the princi-
ples laid down by Naturalism, are attempting in the domain
of morality and politics. The fundamental doctrine of
Rationalism is the supremacy of the hiunan reason, which,
refusing due submission to the divine and eternal reason,
proclaims its own independence, and constitutes itself
the supreme principle and source and judge of truth.
Hence these followers of Liberahsm deny the existence
of any divine authority to which obedience is due, and
proclaim that every man is the law to himself; from
which arises that ethical system which they style inde-
pendent morality, and which, under the guise of liberty,
exonerates man from any obedience to the commands
of God, and substitutes a boundless license. The end of
all this it is not difficult to foresee, especially when society
is in question. For, when once man is firmly persuaded
that he is subject to no one, it follows that the efficient
caiise of the unity of civil society is not to be sought in
any principle external to man, or superior to him, but
simply in the free will of individuals ; that the authority
in the State comes from the people only ; and that, just as
every man's individual reason is his only rule of life, so the
collective reason of the community should be the supreme
guide in the management of all pubUc affairs. Hence
the doctrine of the supremacy of the greater number, and
that all right and all duty reside in the majority. But,
from what has been said, it is clear that all this is in con-

146 HUMAN LIBERTY.

tradiction to reason. To refuse any bond of union be-
tween man and civil society, on the one hand, and God
the Creator and consequently the supreme Law-giver,
on the other, is plainly repugnant to the nature, not only
of man, but of all created things; for, of necessity, aU
effects must in some proper way be connected with their
cause; and it belongs to the perfection of every nature
to contain itself within that sphere and grade which the
order of nature has assigned to it, namely, that the lower
should be subject and obedient to the higher.

Moreover, besides this, a doctrine of such character ia
most hurtful both to individuals and to the State. For,
once ascribe to human reason the only authority to decide
what is true and what is good, and the real distinction
between good and evil is destroyed; honor and dishonor
differ not in their nature, but in the opinion and judg-
ment of each one; pleasure is the measure of what is
lawful; and, given a code of moraUty which can have httle
or no power to restrain or quiet the unruly propensities
of man, a way is naturally opened to universal corruption.
With reference also to public affairs: authority is severed
from the true and natural principle whence it derives all
its efficacy for the common good; and the law determin-
ing what it is right to do and avoid doing is at the mercy
of a majority. Now this is simply a road leading straight
to tyranny. The empire of God over man and civil
society once repudiated, it foUoAvs that religion, as a
pubUc institution, can have no claim to exist, and that
everything that belongs to religion will be treated with
complete indifference. Furthermore, with ambitious
designs on sovereignty, tumult and sedition will be
common amongst the people; and when duty and con-
science cease to appeal to them, there will be nothing
to hold them back but force, which of itself alone is
powerless to keep their covetousness in check. Of this
we have almost daily evidence in the conflict with Socialists
and members of other seditious societies, who labor ua-

HUMAN LIBERTY. 147

ceasingly to bring about revolution. It is for those, then,
who are capable of forming a just estimate of things to
decide whether such doctrines promote that true Uberty
which alone is worthy of man, or rather pervert and
destroy it.

There are, indeed, some adherents of Liberalism who
do not subscribe to these opinions, which we have seen
to be fearful in their enormity, openly opposed to the
truth, and the cause of most terrible evils. Indeed, very
many amongst them, compelled by the force of truth,
do not hesitate to admit that such Uberty is vicious, nay,
is simple license, whenever intemperate in its claims,
to the neglect of truth and justice; and therefore they
would have liberty ruled and directed by right reason,
and consequently subject to the natural law and to the
divine eternal law. But here they think they may stop,
holding that man as a free being is boimd by no law of
God, except such as He makes known to us through our
natural reason. In this they are plainly inconsistent.
For if — as they must admit, and no one can rightly deny
— ^the will of the divine Law-giver is to be obeyed, because
every man is under the power of God, and tends toward
Him as his end, it follows that no one can assign limits
to His legislative authority without failing in the obe-
dience which is due. Indeed, if the himaan mind be so
presumptuous as to define the nature and extent of God's
rights and its own duties, reverence for the divine law
will be apparent rather than real, and arbitrary judgment
will prevail over the authority and providence of God.
Man must, therefore, take his standard of a loyal and
religious life from the eternal law ; and from all and every
one of those laws which God, in His infinite wisdom and
power, has been pleased to enact, and to make known
to us by such clear and unmistakable signs as to leave
no room for doubt. And the more so because laws of this
kind have the same origin, the same author, as the eternal
law, are absolutely in accordance with right reason, and

148 HUMAN LIBERTY.

perfect the natural law. These laws it is that embody
the government of God, who graciously guides and directs
both the intellect and the will of man lest these fall into
error. Let, then, that continue to remain in a holy and
inviolable union, which neither can nor should be sepa-
rated; and in all things — for this is the dictate of right
reason itself— let God be dutifully and obediently served.
There are others, somewhat more moderate though not
more consistent, who affirm that the morality of indi-
viduals is to be guided by the divine law, but not the
morahty of the State, so that in public affairs the com-
mands of God may be passed over, and may be entirely
disregarded in the framing of laws. Hence follows the
fatal theory of the need of separation between Church and
State. But the absurdity of such a position is manifest.
Nature herself proclaims the necessity of the State provid-
ing means and opportunities whereby the community
may be enabled to live properly, that is to say, according
to the laws of God. For since God is the source of all
goodness and justice, it is absolutely ridiculous that the
State should pay no attention to these laws or render
them abortive by contrary enactments. Besides, those
who are in authority owe it to the commonwealth not only
to provide for its external well-being and the conveniences
of life, but still more to consult the welfare of men's souls
in the wisdom of their legislation. But, for the increase
of such benefits, nothing more suitable can be conceived
than the laws which have God for their author; and, there-
fore, they who in their government of the State take no
account of these laws, abuse political power by causing
it to deviate from its proper end and from what nature
itself prescribes. And, what is still more important,
and what We have more than once pointed out, although
the civil authority has not the same proximate end as
the spiritual, nor proceeds on the same lines, nevertheless
jn the exercise of their separate powers they must occasion-
ally meet. For their subjects are the same, and not

HUMAN LIBERTY. 149

infrequently they deal with the same objects, though
in different ways. Whenever this occurs, since a state of
conflict is absurd and manifestly repugnant to the most
wise ordinance of God, there must necessarily exist some
order or mode of procedure to remove the occasions of
difference and contention, and to secure harmony in all
things. This harmony has been not inaptly compared
to that which exists between the body and the soul for
the well-being of both one and the other, the separation
of which brings irremediable harm to the body, since it
extinguishes its very life.

To make this more e\'ident, the growth of liberty
ascribed to our age must be considered apart in its various
details. And, first, let us examine that liberty in individ-
uals which is so opposed to the virtue of religion, namely,
the liberty of worship, as it is called. This is based on the
principle that every man is free to profess as he may
choose any religion or none.

But, assuredly, of all the duties which man has to fulfil,
that, without doubt, is the chief est and holiest which
commands him to worship God with devotion and piety.
This follows of necessity from the truth that we are ever
in the power of God, are ever guided by His will and provi-
dence, and, having come forth from Him, must return to
Him. Add to which no true virtue can exist without
religion, for moral virtue is concerned with those things
which lead to God as man's supreme and ultimate good;
and therefore religion, which (as St. Thomas says) "per-
forms those actions which are directly and immediately
ordained for the divine honor,"* rules and tempers all
virtues. And if it be asked which of the many conflicting
religions it is necessary to adopt, reason and the natural
law unhesitatingly tell us to practise that one which God
enjoins, and which men can easily recognize by certain
exterior notes, whereby divine Providence has willed that
it should be distinguished, because, in a matter of such

* Summa, 2a 2ae, q. Ixxxi. a. 6.

150 HUMAN LIBERTY.

moment, the most terrible loss would be the consequence
of error. Wherefore, when a liberty such as We have
described is offered to man, the power is given him to
pervert or abandon with impunity the most sacred of
duties, and to exchange the unchangeable good for evil;
which, as We have said, is no liberty, but its degradation,
and the abject submission of the soul to sin.

This kind of liberty, if considered in relation to the
State, ^ clearly implies that there is no reason why the
State should offer any homage to God, or should desire
any public recognition of Him ; that no one form of worship
is to be preferred to another, but that all stand on an
equal footing, no account being taken of the rehgion of
the people, even if they profess the Catholic faith. But,
to justify this, it must needs be taken as true that the State
has no duties towards God, or that such duties, if they
exist, can be abandoned with impunity, both of which
assertions are manifestly false. For it cannot be doubted
but that, by the will of God, men are united in civil society ;
whether its component parts be considered; or its fonn,
which imphes authority; or the object of its existence;
or the abundance of the vast services which it renders to
man. God it is who has made man for society, and has
placed him in the company of others like himself, so that
what was wanting to his nature, and beyond his attain-
ment if left to his own resources, he might obtain by
association with others. Wlierefore civil society must
acknowledge God as its Founder and Parent, and must
obey and reverence His power and authority. Justice
therefore forbids, and reason itself forbids, the State to
be godless; or to adopt a line of action which would end
in godlessness — namely, to treat the various religions
(as they call them) alike, and to bestow upon them pro-
miscuously equal rights and privileges. Since, then, the
profession of one religion is necessary in the State, that
religion must be professed which alone is true, and which
can be recognized withoi't difficulty, especiall)' in Catholic

HUMAN LIBERTY. 151

States, because the marks of truth are, as it were, en-
graven upon it. This religion, therefore, the rulers of the
State must preserve and protect, if they would provide
— as they should do — with prudence and usefulness for
the good of the community. For public authority exists
for the welfare of those whom it governs; and although
its proximate end is to lead men to the prosperity found
in this life, yet, in so doing, it ought not to diminish, but
rather to increase, man's capability of attaining to the
supreme good in which his everlasting happiness consists:
which never can be attained if religion be disregarded.

All this, however, We have explained more fully else-
where. We now only wish to add the remark that liberty
of so false a nature is greatly hurtful to the true liberty of
both rulers and their subjects. Religion, of its essence,
is wonderfully helpful to the State. For. since it derives
the prime origin of all power directly from God Himself,
with grave authority it charges rulers to be mindful of
their duty, to govern without injustice or severity, to
rule their people kindly and with almost paternal charity;
it admonishes subjects to be obedient to lawful authority,
as to the ministers of God; and it binds them to their
rulers, not merely by obedience, but by reverence and
affection, forbidding all seditions and venturesome enter-
prises calculated to disturb public order and tranquillity,
and cause greater restrictions to be put upon the liberty
of the people. We need not mention how greatly religion
conduces to pure morals, and pure morals to liberty.
Reason shows, and history confirms the fact, that the \
higher the morality of States, the greater are the liberty »-
and wealth and power which they enjoy.

We must now consider briefly liberty of speech, and
liberty of the Press. It is hardly necessary to say that
there can be no such right as this, if it be not used in mod- ^T^
eration, and if it pass beyond the bounds and end of all
true liberty. For right is a moral power which — as We
have before said and must again and again repeat — it

152 HUMAN LIBERTY.

is absurd to suppose that nature has accorded indifferently
to truth and falsehood, to justice and injustice. Men
have a right freely and prudently to propagate through-
out the State what things soever are true and honorable,
so that as many as possible may possess them; but lying
opinions, than which no mental plague is greater, and
vices which corrupt the heart and moral life, should be
diligently repressed by pubhc authority, lest they insidi-
ously work the ruin of the State. The excesses of an
unbridled intellect, which unfailingly end in the oppres-
sion of the untutored multitude, are no less rightly con-
trolled by the authority of the law than are the injuries
inflicted by violence upon the weak. And this all the
more surely, because by far the greater part of the com-
munity is either absolutely unable, or able only with great
difficulty, to escape from illusions and deceitful subtleties,
especially such as flatter the passions. If unbridled
license of speech and of writing be granted to all, nothing
will remain sacred and inviolate; even the highest and
truest mandates of nature, justly held to be the common
and noblest heritage of the human race, will not be spared.
Thus, truth being gradually obscured by darkness, per-
nicious and manifold error, as too often happens, will
easily prevail. Thus, too, license will gain what hberty
loses; for liberty will ever be more free and secure, in
proportion as license is kept in fuller restraint. In regard,
however, to all matters of opinion which God leaves to
man's free discussion, full liberty of thought and of speech
is naturally wdthin the right of every one; for such liberty
never leads men to suppress the truth, but often to dis-
cover it and make it known.

A like judgment must be passed upon what is called
liberty of teaching. There can be no doubt that truth
alone should imbue the minds of men; for in it are found
the well-being, the end, and the perfection of every intelli-
gent nature; and therefore nothing but truth should
be taught both to the ignorant and to the educated, so

HUMAN LIBERTY. 158

as to bring knowledge to those who have it not, and to
preserve it in those who possess it. For this reason it
is plainly the duty of all who teach to banish error from
the mind, and by sure safeguards to close the entry to all
false convictions. From this it follows, as is evident,
that the liberty of which We have been speaking, is greatly
opposed to reason, and tends absolutely to pervert men's
minds, in as much as it claims for itself the right of teach-
ing whatever it pleases — a liberty which the State cannot
grant without failing in its duty. And the more so, be-
cause the authority of teachers has great weight with
their hearers, who can rarely decide for themselves as
to the truth or falsehood of the instruction given to them.
Wherefore, this liberty also, in order that it may deserve
the name, must be kept within certain limits, lest the
office of teaching be turned with impunity into an instru-
ment of corruption. Now truth, which should be the
only subject-matter of those who teach, is of two kinds,
natural and supernatural. Of natural truths, such as
the principles of nature and whatever is derived from
them immediately by our reason, there is a kind of com-
mon patrimony in the human race. On this, as on a
firm basis, morality, justice, religion, and the very bonds
of human society rest : and to allow people to go unharmed
who violate or destroy it, would be most impious, most
foolish, and most inhuman. But with no less religious
care must we preserve that great and sacred treasure of
the truths which God Himself has taught us. By many
and convincing arguments, often used by defenders of
Christianity, certain leading truths have been laid down:
namely, that some things have been revealed by God;
that the only-begotten Son of God was made flesh, to bear
witness to the truth; that a perfect society was founded
by Him — the Church namely, of which He is the head,
and with which He has promised to abide till the end of
the world. To this society He entrusted all the truths
which he had taught, in order that it might keep and

154 HUMAN LIBERTY.

guard them and with lawful authority explain them; and
at the same time He commanded all nations to hear the
voice of the Church, as if it were His own, threatening
those who would not hear it with everlasting perdition.
Thus it is manifest that man's best and surest teacher is
God, the source and principle of all truth; and the only-
begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, the Way,
the Truth, and the Life, the true Light which enlightens
every man, and to whose teaching all must submit: And
they shall all be taught of God} In faith and in the teach-
ing of moraUty, God Himself made the Church a partaker
of His divine authority, and through His heavenly gift
she cannot be deceived. She is therefore the greatest and
most reliable teacher of mankind, and in her dwells an
inviolable right to teach them. Sustained by the truth
received from her divine Founder, the Church has ever
sought to fulfil holily the mission entrusted to her by
God; unconquered by the difficulties on all sides surround-
ing her, she has never ceased to assert her Uberty of teach-
ing, and in this way the wretched superstition of paganism
being dispelled, the wide world was renewed unto Christian
wisdom. Now, reason itself clearly teaches that the
truths of divine revelation and those of nature cannot really
be opposed to one another, and that whatever is at vari-
ance with them must necessarily be false. Therefore the
divine teaching of the Church, so far from being an obstacle
to the pursuit of learning and the progress of science, or
in any way retardiiig the advance of civilization, in reality
brings to them the sure guidance of shining light. And
for the same reason it is of no small advantage for the
perfecting of human liberty, since our Saviour Jesus
Christ has said that by truth is man made free : You shall
know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.^ There-
fore there is no reason why genuine liberty should grow
indignant, or true science feel aggrieved, at having to

»John vi. 45. 'John viii, 32.

HUMAN LIBERTY. 155

bear the just and necessary restraint of laws by which,
in the judgment of the Church and of Reason itself, human
teaching has to be controlled. The Church, indeed — as
facts have everywhere proved — looks chiefly and above
all to the defence of the Christian faith, while careful
at the same time to foster and promote every kind of
human learning. For learning is in itself good, and praise-
worthy, and desirable; and further, all erudition which is
the outgrowth of sound reason, and in conformity with
the truth of things, serves not a Httle to confirm what we
believe on the authority of God. The Church, truly, to
our great benefit, has carefully preserved the monuments
of ancient wisdom; has opened everywhere homes of
science, and has urged on intellectual progress by foster-
ing most diligently the arts by which the culture of our
age is so much advanced. Lastly, We must not forget
that a vast field lies freely open to man's industry and
genius, containing all those things which have no neces-
sarj-- connection with Christian faith and morals, or as
to which the Church, exercising no authority, leaves the
judgment of the learned free and unconstrained. From
all this may be understood the nature and character of
that hberty which the followers of Liberalism so eagerly
advocate and proclaim. On the one hand, they demand
for themselves and for the State a license which opens
the way to every perversity of opinion; and on the other,
they hamper the Church in divers ways, restricting her
liberty within narrowest limits, although from her teaching
not only is there nothing to be feared, but in every respect
very much to be gained.

Another liberty is widely advocated, namel)^, liberty
of conscience. If by this is meant that every one may, as
he chooses, worship God or not, it is sufficiently refuted
by the arguments already adduced. But it may also be
taken to mean that every man in the State may follow
the will of God and, from a consciousness of duty and free
from every obstacle, obey His commands. This, indeed,

156 HUMAN LIBERTY.

is true liberty, a liberty worthy of the sons of God, which
nobly maintains the dignity of man, and is stronger than
all violence or wrong — a hberty which the Church has
always desired and held most dear. This is the kind of
liberty the apostles claimed for themselves with intrepid
constancy, which the apologists of Christianity con-
firmed by their writings, and which the martyrs in vast
numbers consecrated by their blood. And deservedly
so; for this Christian liberty bears witness to the absolute
and most just dominion of God over man, and to the
chief and supreme duty of man towards God. It has
nothing in common with a seditious and rebellious mind;
and in no tittle derogates from obedience to public author-
ity; for the right to command and to require obedience
exists only so far as it is in accordance with the authority
of God, and is within the measure that He has laid down.
But when anything is commanded which is plainly at
variance with the will of God, there is a wide departure
from this divinely constituted order, and at the same time
a direct conflict with divine authority ; therefore it is right
not to obey.

By the patrons of Liberalism, however, who make the
State absolute and omnipotent, and proclaim that man
should live altogether independently of God, the liberty
of which We speak, which goes hand in hand with virtue
and religion, is not admitted; and whatever is done for
its preservation is accounted an injury and an offence
against the State. Indeed, if what they say were really
true, there would be no tyranny, no matter how mon-
strous, which we should not be bound to endure and
submit to.

The Church most earnestly desires that the Christian
teaching, of which We have given an outline, should
penetrate every rank of society in reality and in practice;
for it would be of the greatest efficacy in healing the evils
of our day, which are neither few nor slight, and are the
offspring in great part of the false liberty which is so much

HUMAN LIBERTY. 157

extolled, and in which the germs of safety and glory were
supposed to be contained. The hope has been disappointed
by the result. The fruit, instead of being sweet and whole-
some, has proved cankered and bitter. If then a remedy
is desired, let it be sought for in a restoration of sound
doctrine, from which alone the preservation of order and,
as a consequence, the defence of true hberty can be con-
fidently expected. Yet, with the discernment of a true
mother, the Church weighs the great burden of human
weakness, and well knows the course down which the
minds and actions of men are in this our age being borne.
For this reason, while not conceding any right to any-
thing save what is true and honest, she does not forbid
pubhc authority to tolerate what is at variance with truth
and justice, for the sake of avoiding some greater evil,
or of obtaining or preserving some greater good. God
Himself, in His providence, though infinitely good and
powerful permits evil to exist in the world, partly that
greater good may not be impeded, and partly that greater
evil may not ensue. In the government of States it
is not forbidden to imitate the Ruler of the world; and,
as the authority of man is powerless to prevent every
evil, it has (as St. Augustine says) to overlook and leave
unpunished many things which are punished, and rightly,
by divine Providence} But if, in such circumstances,
for the sake of the common good (and this is the only
legitimate reason), human law may or even should tolerate
evil, it may not and should not approve or desire evil for
its own sake; for evil of itself, being a privation of good,
is opposed to the common welfare which every legislator is
bound to desire and defend to the best of his ability. In
this, human law must endeavor to imitate God, who, as
St. Thomas teaches, in allowing evil to exist in the world,
" neither wills evil to be done, nor wills it not to be done, but
wills only to permit it to be done; and this is good." ^ This

^ St. August., de lib. arb., lib. 1. cap. 6, num. 14.
' St. Thomas, 1 q. xix. a 9 aA 3.

168 HUMAN LIBERTY.

saying of the Angelic Doctor contains briefly the whole
doctrine of the permission of evil. But, to judge aright,
we must acknowledge that the more a State is driven to
tolerate evil the further is it from perfection; and that
the tolerance of evil which is dictated by political pru-
dence should be strictly confined to the limits which
its justifying cause, the public welfare, requires. Where-
fore, if such tolerance would be injurious to the public
welfare, and entail greater evils on the State, it would
not be lawful; for in such case the motive of good is
wanting. And although in the extraordinary condition
of these times the Church usually acquiesces in certain
modern liberties, not because she prefers them in them-
selves, but because she judges it expedient to permit
them, she would in happier times exercise her own liberty;
and, by persuasion, exhortation, and entreaty, would
endeavor, as she is bound, to fulfil the duty assigned
to her by God of providing for the eternal salvation of
mankind. One thing, however, remains always true — •
that the Uberty which is claimed for all to do rll things
is not, as We have often said, of itself desirable, inasmuch
as it is contrary to reason that error and truth should
have equal rights. And as to tolerance, it is surprising
how far removed from the equity and prudence of the
Church are those who profess what is called Liberalism.
For, in allowing that boundless hcense of which We have
spoken, they exceed all limits, and end at last by making
no apparent distinction between truth and error, honesty
and dishonesty. And because the Church, the pillar and
ground of truth, and the unerring teacher of morals, is
forced utterly to reprobate and condemn tolerance of
such an abandoned and criminal character, they calum-
niate her as being wanting in patience and gentleness,
and thus fail to see that, in so doing, they impute to her
as a fault what is in reality a matter for commendation.
But, in spite of all this show of tolerance, it very often
happens that, while they profess themselves ready to

HUMAN LIBERTY. 159

lavish liberty on all in the greatest profusion, they are
utterly intolerant towards the Catholic Church, by re-
fusing to allow her the liberty of being herself free.

And now to reduce for clearness' sake to its principal
heads all that has been set forth with its immediate con-
clusions, the summing up is this briefly: that man, by
a necessity of his nature, is wholly subject to the most
faithful and ever-enduring power of God; and that as
a consequence any liberty, except that which consists
in submission to God and in subjection to His will, is
unintelligible. To deny the existence of this authority
in God, or to refuse to submit to it, means to act, not as a
free man, but as one who treasonably abuses his liberty;
and in such a disposition of mind the chief and deadly
vice of Liberalism essentially consists. The form, how-
ever, of the sin is manifold; for in more ways and
degrees than one can the will depart from the obedience
which is due to God or to those who share the divine
power.

For, to reject the supreme authority of God, and to cast
off all obedience to Him in public matters, or even in pri-
vate and domestic affairs, is the greatest perversion of
liberty and the worst kind of Liberalism: and what We
have said must be understood to apply to this alone in
its fullest sense.

Next comes the system of those who admit indeed
the duty of submitting to God, the Creator and Ruler
of the world, inasmuch as all nature is dependent on
His will, but who boldly reject all laws of faith and
morals which are above natural reason, but are revealed
by the authority of God; or who at least impudently
assert that there is no reason why regard should be paid
to these laws, at any rate publicly, by the State. How
mistaken these men also are, and how inconsistent, we
have seen above. From this teaching, as from its source
and principle, flows that fatal principle of the separation
of Church and State; whereas it is, on the contrary^ cleft?

160 HUMAN LIBERTY.

that the two powers, though dissimilar in functions and
unequal in degree, ought nevertheless to Uve in concord,
by harmony in their action and the faithful discharge of
their respective duties.

But this teaching is understood in two ways. Many
wish the State to be separated from the Church wholly
and entirely, so that regard to every right of human
society, in institutions, customs, and laws, the offices of
State, and the education of youth, they would pay no
more regard to the Church than if she did not exist; and,
at most, would allow the citizens individually to attend
to their religion in private if so minded. Against such
as these, all the arguments by which We disprove the
principle of separation of Church and State are conclusive ;
with this superadded, that it is absurd the citizen should
respect the Church, while the State may hold her in
contempt.

Others oppose not the existence of the Church, nor
indeed could they; yet they despoil her of the nature
and rights of a perfect society, and maintain that it does
not belong to her to legislate, to judge, or to punish, but
only to exhort, to advise, and to rule her subjects in
accordance with their own consent and will. By such
opinion they pervert the nature of this divine society,
and attenuate and narrow its authority, its office of teacher,
and its whole efficiency ; and at the same time they aggran-
dize the power of the civil government to such extent as
to subject the Church of God to the empire and sway of
the State, like any voluntary association of citizens. To
refute completely such teaching, the arguments often
used by the defenders of Christianity, and set forth by
Us, especially in the Encyclical Letter Immortale Dei,
are of great avail; for by those arguments it is proved
that, by a divine provision, all the rights which essentially
belong to a society that is legitimate, supreme, and perfect
in all its parts exist in the Church.

Lastly, there remain those who, while they do not

HUMAN LIBERTY. 101

approve the separation of Church and State, think never-
theless that the Church ought to adapt herself to the times
and conform to what is required by the modern system of
government. Such an opinion is sound, if it is to be
understood of some equitable adjustment consistent with
truth and justice; in so far, namely, that the Church, in
the hope of some great good, may show herself indulgent,
and may conform to the times in so far as her sacred office
permits. But it is not so in regard to practices and
doctrines which a perversion of morals and a warped
judgment have unlawfully introduced. Religion, truth,
and justice, must ever be maintained; and, as God has
intrusted these ^reat and sacred matters to the caie of the
Church, she can never be so unfaithful to her office as to
dissemble in regard to what is false or unjust, or to con-
nive at what is hurtful to religion.

From what has been said, it follows that it is quite
unlawful to demand, to defend, or to grant unconditional
freedom of thought, of speech, of writing, or of worship,
as if these were so many rights given by nature to man.
For if nature had really granted them, it would be lawful
to refuse obedience to God, and there would be no restraint
on human liberty. It likewise follows that freedom in
these things may be tolerated wherever there is just cause;
but only with such moderation as will prevent its degen-
erating into license and excess. And where such liberties
are in use, men should employ them in doing good, and
should estimate them as the Church does; for liberty is
to be regarded as legitimate in so far only as it affords
greater facility for doing good, but no farther.

Whenever there exists, or there is reason to fear, an
unjust oppression of the people on the one hand, or a
deprivation of the liberty of the Church on the other, it is
lawful to seek for such a change of government as will
bring about due liberty of action. In such case an exces-
sive and vicious liberty is not sought for, but only some
relief, for the common welfare, in order that, while license

182 HUMAN LIBERTY.

for evil is allowed by the State, the power of doing good
may not be hindered.

Again, it is not of itself wrong to prefer a democratic
fonn of government, if only the Catholic doctrine be
maintained as to the origin and exercise of power. Of
the various forms of government, the Church does not
reject any that are fitted to procure the welfare of the
subject; she wishes only — and this nature itself requires
— ^that they should be constituted without involving
wrong to any one, and especially without violating the
rights of the Church.

Unless it be otherwise determined, by reason of some
exceptional condition of things, it is expedient to take
part in the administration of public affairs. And the
Church approves of every one devoting his services to the
conmion good, and doing all that he can for the defence,
preservation, and prosperity of his country.

Neither does the Church condemn those who, if it can
be done without violation of justice, wish to make their
country independent of any foreign or despotic power.
Nor does she blame those who wish to assign to the State
the power of self-government, and to its citizens the
greatest possible measure of prosperity. The Church
has always most faithfully fostered civil hberty, and this
was seen especially in Italy, in the municipal prosperity,
and wealth, and glory, which were obtained at a time
when the salutary power of the Church had spread, with-
out opposition, to all parts of the State.

These things, Venerable Brothers, which, under the
guidance of faith and reason, in the discharge of Our
Apostolic office, We have now delivered to you, We hope,
especially by your co-operation with Us, will be useful
unto very many. In lowliness of heart We raise Our
eyes in supplication to God, and earnestly beseech Him
to shed mercifully the light of His wisdom and of Hia
counsel upon men, so that, strengthened by thes«
heavenly gifts, they may in matters of such moment

HUMAN LIBERTY. 163

discern what is true, and may afterwards, in public and
in private, at all times and with unshaken constancy,
live in accordance with the truth. As a pledge of these
heavenly gifts, and in witness of Our good will to you,
Venerable Brothers, and to the clergy and people com-
mitted to each of you, We most lovingly grant in the
Lord the ApostoUo Benediction.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.
Encyclical Letter Exeunte Jam Anno, December 25, 1888.

At the close of the year in which, by the singular bless-
ing and benefit of God, We have in sound health cele-
brated the fiftieth anniversary of Our priesthood, We
naturally look back upon the past months, and with
great pleasure recall to memory each and all of them.
And not without reason; for while the event, so far as
it regarded Us personally, was of itself neither great nor
wonderful, it has moved the hearts of men in an unusual
manner, and has been celebrated with so many manifesta-
tions of joy and congratulation that nothing was left to
be desired. This general joy was indeed most pleasing
to Us, and most gratifying; but what We valued most in
connection with it was the significance of these heartfelt
demonstrations, and the constancy of faith which they so
unmistakably displayed. For the congratulations which
came to Us from all sides expressed clearly this fact, that
in all places the minds and hearts of men are turned to
the Vicar of Jesus Christ; that, in the many evils which
press upon us from every quarter, men look with con-
fidence to the Apostolic See as to an ever-flowing and
ever-pure source of salvation; and that, in every land
where the Catholic religion flourishes, the Roman Church,
mother and mistress of all churches, is reverenced and
honored, as is right and fitting, with one mind and with
ardent love.

For these reasons We have often during the past months
lifted up Our eyes to the ever holy and eternal God, in
thanksgiving for the most gracious gift of life bestowed

164

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 165

upon Us, and for the many consolations vouchsafed to Us
in Our sorrows; and during all this time We have used
every occasion of showing Our gratitude to those to whom
it was due. Now, however, the closing days of the year
and of the Jubilee bid Us renew the recollection of benefits
received; and, to Our very great satisfaction, the whole
Church is joining with us in fresh thanksgiving. At the
same time We anxiously wish by this letter to declare
publicly that as so many testimonies of devotion and
kindness and love have done much to lighten Our burden,
so too a grateful remembrance of them will live always in
Our mind.

But a holier and higher duty yet remains. For, in
this affectionate and extraordinary eagerness to show
honor to the Roman Pontiff, We seem called upon to
acknowledge the power and the design of God, who often
draws, and alone can draw, the beginnings of great good
from events of the smallest moment. For God, in His
most loving providence, seems to have wished to arouse
faith in the midst of widespread disbeHef, and to recall
the Christian people to the pursuit of a higher hfe. Where-
fore we must strive diligently that, laying the foundation
of good, a favorable change may be inaugurated, and
that the intentions of God may be both understood and
put in practice. The obedience shown to the Apostolic
See will indeed be full and perfect, if, joined with the
admiration for Christian virtue, it lead to the salvation
of souls — the only end worth seeking, and one which
will abide forever.

In the exercise of the high Apostolic office bestowed
upon Us by the goodness of God, We have many times,
as in duty bound, undertaken the defence of truth, and
have striven to expound particularly that teaching which
seemed the most opportune for the public welfare, so
that, in seeking the truth, all might watchfully and care-
fully avoid the dangers of error. But now, as a loving
parent of his children, We wish to address all Christians,

166 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

and in simple homely words to exhort all and each to lead
a holy life. For, beyond the mere profession of faith.
Christian virtues and practices are necessary for the
Christian; and upon these depend, not only the eternal
salvation of souls, but also the stable peace and true pros-
perity of the human family and of society.

If we inquire into the kind of life men everywhere
lead, it is impossible for any one to avoid the conclusion
that pubUc and private morals differ vastly from the
precepts of the Gjjpspel. Too sadly, alas! do liie words of
the apostle St. John apply to our age: All that is in the
world is the concupiscence of the flesh, and the concupis-
cence of the eyes, and the pride of life} For in truth most
men, with little heed as to whence they have come or
whither they are going, place all their thoughts and all
their care upon the vain and fleeting goods of this life;
and, contrary to nature and right order, they voluntarily
give themselves up to serve things of which their reason
tells them they should be the masters. It is a short step
from the desire of comfort and luxury to the striving
after the means to obtain them. Hence arises the un-
bridled eagerness to become rich which binds those whom
it possesses, and while they are seeking the gratification
of their passion, hurries them along, often without refer-
ence to justice or injustice, and not infrequently even
with insolent contempt for the penury of others. Thus
very many who live in luxury call themselves the breth-
ren of the multitudes whom in the depths of their heart*
they despise. With minds puffed up with pride, they
strive to be subject to no law and to have respect for no
authority. They call self-love liberty, and think themselves
horn free like a wild ass's colt.^ Snares and temptations
to sin abound ; impious and immoral dramas are exhibited
on the stage; books and the daily press jeer at virtue and
ennoble crime; and the fine arts themselves, which were
intended for virtuous use and for rightful recreation, are

» 1 John ii. 16. » Job xi. 12.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 167

made to minister to depraved passions. Nor can we look
to the future without fear; for new seeds of evil are con-
tinually being sown broadcast in the hearts of the rising
generation. As for the public schools, it is well known to
you that there is no ecclesiastical authority left in them;
and during the years when tender minds should be trained
carefully and conscientiously in Christian virtue, the
precepts of religion are for the most part even left un-
taught. Youths somewhat advanced in age encounter
a still graver peril, namely, from evil teaching; which is
of such a kind as to deceive them by misleading words,
instead of filling them with a knowledge of what is true.
For many nowadays seek to learn truth by the aid of
reason alone, putting divine faith entirely aside; and,
through the exclusion of this strength and of this light,
they fall into many errors and fail to discover the truth.
They teach, for instance, that matter alone exists in the
world; that men and beasts have the same origin and a
like nature; and some even there are who go so far as to
doubt the existence of God, the Ruler and Maker of the
world, or to err most grievously, like unto the heathen, as
to His divine nature. Hence the very essence and form
of virtue, of justice, and of duty are of necessity distorted.
Thus it is that, while they hold up to admiration the high
authority of reason, and unduly extol the subtlety of the
human intellect, they fall into the just punishment of pride
through ignorance of what is of the greatest importance.
When the mind has thus been poisoned, the moral char-
acter becomes at the same time deeply and substantially
corrupt; and so diseased a state can be cured only with
the utmost difficulty in this class of men, because on the
one side their opinions vitiate the judgment of what ia
right, and on the other they have not the hght of Christian
faith, which is the principle and foundation of all righteous-
ness.

Daily we see, with our own eyes, as it were, the numer-
ous evils that afflict all classes of men from these causes.

168 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

Poisonous doctrines have corrupted both public and pri-
vate life; rationalism, materiahsm, and atheism have
begotten socialism, communism, and nihilism — fatal and
pestilential evils, which naturally, and almost necessarily,
flow forth from such principles. In good sooth, if the
Catholic religion may be rejected with impunity, whose
divine origin is made clear by such unmistakable signs,
why should not all other forms of religion be rejected,
when it is clear that they have not the same f.vidence of
truth? If the soul is by nature one with the body, and
if therefore no hope of a happy eternity remains when
the body dies, what reason is there why man should endure
toil and suffering here in the endeavor to subject the appe-
tites to right reason? The highest good of man wi.ll con-
sist in enjoying the comforts and pleasures of life, and
since there is absolutely no one who does not by an in-
stinct and impulse of nature strive after happiness, every
man will naturally lay hands on all he can in the hope of
living happily on the spoils of others. Nor will there
be any power mighty enough to bridle passions when fully
set astir; for if the supreme and eternal law, which
commands what is right and forbids what is wTong, be
rejected, it follows that the power of law is thwarted, and
that all authority is loosened. Hence the bonds of civil
society will be utterly shattered, when every man is driven
by insatiable greed to a perpetual struggle, some striving
to keep what they possess, others to obtain what they
covet. Such is more or less the spirit and tone of our
age.

There is, nevertheless, some consolation for us, even
while looking at existing evils, and we may Uft up our
heart in good hope. For God created all things that they
might he: and He made the nations of the earth for health}
But as all this world cannot be upheld save by the will and
providence of Him who called it out of nothing, so also can
men be healed only by the power of Him by whose good-

» Wi»d. i. 14.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 169

ness they were recalled from death to life. For Jesus
Christ redeemed the human race once by the abundant
shedding of His blood ; and the efficacy of this great work
and gift is for all ages: Neither is there salvation in any
other} Hence they who strive by the enforcement of law
to extinguish the ever-growing flame of popular passions,
strive indeed for what is right and just; but they will labor
with little or no result so long as they obstinately reject
the power of the Gospel and refuse the assistance of the
Church. These evils can be cured only by a change of
principles, and by returning in pubUc and private conduct
to Jesus Christ and to a Christian rule of life.

Now the whole essence of a Christian life is not to take
part in the corruption of the world, but to oppose constantly
any indulgence in that corruption. This is taught by all
the words and actions, by all the laws and institutions,
by the very life and death of Jesus Christ, the author and
finisher of faith? Hence, however strongly we are drawn
back by our evil nature and the profligacy that is around
us, it is our duty to run to the fight proposed to us,^ armed
and prepared with the same courage and the same weapons
as He who, having joy set before Him, endured the cross.*
Wherefore men are bound to consider and understand
this above all, that it is contrary to the profession and
duty of a Christian to follow, as they are wont to do, every
kind of pleasure, to shrink from the hardship attending
a virtuous life, and to allow oneseK all that gratifies and
deUghts the senses. They that are Christ's have crucified
their flesh with the vices and concupiscences.^ Hence it
follows that they who are not accustomed to suffer, and
to disregard ease and pleasure, belong not to Christ. By
the infinite goodness of God, man was restored to the hope
of an immortal life from which he had been cut off; but
he cannot attain to it if he strives not to walk in the very

1 Acts iv 12. * Heb. xii. 2.

» Heb. xii. 2. * GaL v. 24.

» Heb. xii. 1.

170 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

footsteps of Christ, and to conform his mind and life to
that of Christ by meditating on His example. Therefore
this is not a counsel, but a duty; and the duty, not only
of those who desire a more perfect life, but of all — always
hearing about in our body the mortification of Jesus} How
else shall the natural law, which commands man to live
virtuously, be kept? For by holy baptism the sin which
we contracted at birth is taken away; but the evil and
perverse roots which sin has planted in our hearts are by
no means removed. That part of man which is without
reason, although harmless to those who fight manfully
by the grace of Christ, nevertheless struggles with reason
for supremacy, disturbs the whole soul, and tyrannically
bends the will away from virtue with such power that we
cannot escape vice or do our duty except by a daily struggle.
The Council of Trent says: "This holy synod teaches
that in the baptized there remains concupiscence or an
inclination to evil, which, being left to be fought against,
cannot hurt those who, instead of yielding to it, manfully
fight against it by the grace of Jesus Christ; for he who
hath lawfully striven shall be crowned." ^ There is in this
struggle a degree of valor to which only a very perfect
virtue attains, such as belongs to those who, by putting to
flight impulses opposed to right reason, have made such
advances in virtue as to seem almost to live a heavenly
life on earth. Granted that few attain excellence so great,
yet even the philosophy of the ancients taught that every
man should conquer his evil desires; and still more and
with greater care should those do so who, from daily
contact with the world, are more sorely tempted — unless
it be foolishly thought that where the danger is greater
watchfulness is less needed, or that they whose maladies
are most grievous need medicine more seldom.

But the toil which has to be borne in this conflict is com-
pensated by great blessings over and above its eternal
reward in heaven; and particularly because by the quell-

»2 Cor. iv, 10. 'Seea. v. can, 6.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 171

ing of the passions, nature is in a measure restored to its
original dignity. For man has been born under a law
that the soul should rule the body, and that the appetites
should be restrained by mind and reason; and hence it
follows that to restrain evil passions striving for the
mastery over us is our noblest and greatest freedom.
Moreover, it is difficult to see what can be expected of a
man, even as a member of society, who is not thus dis-
posed. Will any one be inclined to do right who has been
accustomed to make self-love the sole rule of what he
should do or avoid doing? No man can be high-souled,
or kind, or merciful, or restrained who has not learned
to conquer self, and to despise all worldly things when
opposed to virtue.

Nor must We refrain from affirming that it seems to
have been determined in the designs of God that there
should be no salvation for men without struggle and pain.
Indeed, when God gave to man pardon for sin. He gave
it under the condition that His only-begotten Son should
pay its just and due penalt}^; and though Jesus Christ
might have satisfied divine justice in other ways, never-
theless He preferred to satisfy it by the utmost suffering
and the sacrifice of His life. Therefore He has imposed
it upon His followers as a law signed with His blood that
their life should be an endless strife with the vices of their
age. What made the apostles imconquerable in their
mission of teaching truth to the world? What strength-
ened our countless martyrs in bearing witness by their
blood to the Christian faith? Their more than readiness to
obey fearlessly this law. All who have taken heed to live
a Christian life and to seek after virtue have trodden the
same path. We, too, must walk along this road if we
desire to assure either our own salvation or that of others.
Therefore, in the unbounded license that prevails, it is
necessary for every one to guard manfully against the
allurements of luxury; and since on erery side there is
go much pretentious display of enjoyment in wealth,

172 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

the soul must be strengthened against the dangerous
snare of wealth, lest, in striving after what are called
the good things of life, which cannot satisfy and soon
fade away, the soul should lose the treasure in heaven
which faileth not. Finally, it is a further matter of deep
grief that free thought and evil example have had such
an influence in enfeebling the minds of men as to make
many ashamed of the name of Christian — a shame which
is the sign either of hopeless wickedness or of extreme
cowardice. Each of these is detestable, and each injuri-
ous in the extreme. For what salvation remains for men,
or on what hope can they rely, if they cease to glory in
the name of Jesus Christ, if they openly and constantly
refuse to live by the precepts of the Gospel? It is a com-
mon complaint that the age is barren of courageous men.
Bring back into vogue a Christian rule of life and the
minds of men will forthwith regain their strength and
constancy.

But man's power of itself is not equal to the responsi-
bility of so many and such various duties. As we must
ask of God our daily bread for the sustenance of the body,
so must we pray to Him for strength of soul that we may
be sustained in virtue. Hence that universal condition
and law of our life, which We have said is a perpetual
warfare, brings with it the necessity of prayer to God.
For, as is well and gracefully said by St. Augustine,
devout prayer passes beyond the world's space and calls
down the mercy of God from heaven. In order to con-
quer the assaults of our passions and the snares of the
devil, lest we be led into evil, we are commanded to seek
the divine help in the words. Pray that ye enter not into
temptation} How much more is this necessary if we
wish to labor profitably for the salvation of others also!
Christ our Lord, the only-begotten Son of God, the source
of all grace and virtue, first showed by example what He
taught in word : He passed the whole night in the prayer of

' Matt. xxvi. 41.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 173

God;^ and when nigh to the sacrifice of His life, He prayed
the longer.^ The frailty of nature would be much less peril-
ous, and the moral character less weak and languid, if
that divine precept of prayer were not so much disre-
garded and treated almost with dishke. God is easily
appeased. He desires to do good to men, having clearly
promised to give His grace in abundance to those who
ask for it. Nay, He even invites men to ask, and almost
insists upon their asking, with most loving words: / say
unto you, ask, and it shall be given to you : seek and you shaU
find : knock and it shall he opened unto you} And that we
may have no fear in doing this with all confidence and
familiarity, He makes use of tender phrases, comparing
HimseK to a most loving father who desires nothing so
much as the love of his children: // you then, being evU,
know how to give good gifts to your children : how much more
will your Father, who is in heaven, give good things to them
that ask Him?*

Whoever considers these things will not wonder at the
efiicacy of human prayer seeming so great to St. John
Chrysostom that he thought it might be compared with
the divine power. For, as God created all things by His
word, so man by prayer obtains whatever he wills.
Nothing has so great a power to obtain grace for us as
prayer when rightly made; for it contains the motives
by which God easily allows HimseK to be appeased and
to incline to mercy. In prayer we separate ourselves
from things of earth ; filled with the thought of God alone,
we become conscious of our human weakness; and there-
fore, resting in the goodness and embrace of our Heavenly
Father, we seek refuge in the power of Him who created
us. We approach the Author of all good as if pressing
Him to look upon our weak souls, unsteadfast strength,
and great poverty; and, full of hope, we implore His aid
and guardianship, who alone can heal our infirmities^

* Luke vi. 12. ' Luke xi. 9.

* Luke xxii. 43. * Matt. vii. 11.

174 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

and give help to us in our weakness and misery. By such
a condition of mind, in which, as is fitting, we think
humbly of ourselves, God is greatly moved to mercy, for
God resisteth the proud^ hut to the humble He giveth grace}

Let, then, the habit of prayer be sacred to all; let the
mind and heart and voice pray together; and let our life
be in conformity with our prayer, so that by keeping the
divine laws, the course of our days may seem a continual
ascent towards God.

The virtue of prayer of which we are speaking is, like
other virtues, produced and nourished by divine faith.
For God is the author of all true and alone desirable
blessings; and to Him also we owe our knowledge of His
infinite goodness, and of the merits of Jesus our Re-
deemer. But, on the other hand, nothing is more fitted
for the nourishment and increase of faith than the pious
habit of prayer. And the need of the virtue of faith
is seen plainly at this our time through its weakness in
most men, and its absence in so many. For faith is es-
pecially the source whereby not only each one's Hfe may
be amended, but also right judgment may be obtained
as to those matters which by their conflict hinder States
from hving in peace and security. If the multitude
thirsts and raves for excessive liberty; if the indignation
of the lower orders is with difficulty constrained; if the
greed of the wealthier classes is insatiable, and if to these
be added other evils of the same kind which We have
elsewhere fully set forth, it will be found that nothing
can remedy them more fully or more surely than Christian
faith.

And here it is fitting that We should turn Our thoughts
and words to you whom God has made His helpers, by
giving you His divine power to dispense His mysteries.
If the sources of public and private moral welfare are
examined, it will, without doubt, be found that the lives
of the clergy may be of immense influence. Let them

' 1 Peter v, 5,

THE BIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 175

therefore remember that they have been called by Jesus
Christ the light of the world; and that "the soul of the
priest should shine like a light illuminating the whole
world." * The light of learning, and this in no small
degree, is needed in the priest, because it is his duty to
fill others with wisdom, to overcome error, and to be a
guide to the many in the steep and slippery paths of life.
Learning, however, must above all be accompanied by
innocence of life, because in the reformation of man ex-
ample avails far more than precept. Let your light shine
before men, that they may see your good works. ^ The
meaning of this divine precept is, that the perfection of
virtue in priests should be such that they should be like
a mirror to the rest of men. "Nothing leads others more
sxirely to the love and worship of God than the life and
example of those dedicated to the divine ministry; for,
since they are separated from the world and placed in a
higher sphere, others look on them as on a mirror, to
seek from them an example which they may follow." '
Therefore, if all men must watchfully take heed against
the allurements of sin, and against a too eager seeking
after fleeting pleasures, it is clear that priests ought to
do the same much more faithfully and steadfastly. But it
is not enough for them merely to restrain their passions:
their sacred dignity requires of them in addition the habit
of stringent self-denial, and that they should devote all
the powers of their soul, particularly the intellect and
will, which hold the highest powers in man, to the service
of Christ. "If thou hast a mind to leave all," says St.
Bernard, "remember to reckon thyself among the things
that thou wishest to abandon — nay, deny thyself first
and before everything." * Not until their soul is un-
shackled and free from every imhallowed desire will

> St. John Chrysost. De Sac. L 3, c. 1.
» Matt. V. 16.

^ Con. Trid. Sess. xxil 1, de R«f.
* Declam., c. 1.

176 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

priests have a ready and generous zeal for the salvation
of others, and without this they cannot properly secure
their own. "One thing only shall they seek and rejoice
at in those subject to them, in one thing only shall they
glory — to make of them, if possible, a perfect people.
For this they will strive in every way, with great labor
of mind and body, in toil and suffering, in hunger and
thirst, in cold and nakedness." * Frequent meditation
upon the things of heaven wonderfully nourishes and
strengthens virtue of this kind, and makes it always
ready and fearless of the greatest difficulties for the good
of others. The more pains they take in such meditation,
the more clearly will priests understand the greatness,
the excellence, the hoUness of their office. They will see
how sad it is that so many men, redeemed by Jesus Christ,
should run headlong to eternal ruin; and by meditation
upon the divine nature they will themselves be more
strongly moved, and will more effectually excite others
to the love of God.

Such, then, is the surest way to secure the general wel-
fare. But let us not be frightened by the greatness of
our difficulties, or despair of cure by reason of the long
continuance of evil. The impartial and unchangeable
justice of God reserves due reward for good deeds and
fitting punishment for sin. But since the fife of peoples
and nations does not outlast this world, these necessarily
receive their retribution upon this earth. Indeed, it is
not a new thing for prosperity to have place in a sinful
nation; and this by the just designs of God, who from
time to time rewards good deeds with prosperity, for no
people is altogether without worth. This St. Augustine
considered to have been the case with the Roman people.
The law, nevertheless, remains clear: that nations may
prosper, it is to the interest of all that virtue — and espe-
cially justice, the mother of all virtues — should be pub-
licly practised. Justice exalteth a nation; but ain maketh

»St Bern., De ConsiA, iv. 2.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 177

nations miserable} It is not our purpose here to consider
how far evil deeds may succeed, or whether some king-
doms, while flourishing according to their desires, may
nevertheless bear within them the seeds of ruin and misery.
This one thing, of which history has innumerable ex-
amples, We wish to be understood, that injustice is always
punished, and with greater severity the longer it has
been continued. We, however, are greatly consoled by
the words of the Apostle St. Paul: For all things are yours;
and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's.^ That is, by the
hidden dispensation of divine Providence the course of
earthly things is so guided and governed that all things
that happen to man turn to the glory of God, and lead to
the salvation of the true disciples of Jesus Christ. Of
these the mother and sustainer, the leader and guardian,
is the Church; which, united to Christ her spouse in inti-
mate and unchangeable charity, is also joined to Him in
conmion contest and in common conquest. Hence We
are not, and cannot be, anxious for the sake of the
Church; but We greatly fear for the salvation of very
many who in their pride despise the Church, and by
many kinds of error are borne along to their own de-
struction. We are anxious for those States which We
cannot but see have turned from God, and are sleeping
in the midst of danger with dull security and insensi-
bility. "Nothing is equal in power to the Church.
. . . How many have opposed the Church and have
themselves perished! The Church reaches to the heavens.
Such is the Church's greatness; she conquers when
attacked; when beset by snares she triumphs; . . .
she struggles, and is not overthrown; she fights, and ia
not overcome." '

Not only is she not conquered, but she preserves entire
that reforming power and efficient principle of salvation
which she derives unceasingly from God, and which

^Prov. xiv. 34. » 1 Cor. iii. 22, 23.

'St. John Chrysost.

178 THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.

remains unchanged by time. And, if by this power she
freed the world grown old in vice and lost in superstition,
why should she not by the same bring it back again to
the right way? Let suspicion and enmity cease at length;
let all obstacles be removed, and let the Church, whose
duty it is to guard and spread abroad the benefits obtained
by Jesus Christ, be restored everywhere to her rights.
Then shall we know by experience how far the light of the
Gospel can reach, and what the power of Christ our Re-
deemer can effect. This year, now coming to a close,
has given, as We have said, many signs of a reviving faith.
Would that this little spark may increase till it becomes
a mighty flame, which, burning up the roots of vice, may
quickly prepare the way for the restoration of morals
and for salutary works. We, indeed, who command the
mystical barque of the Church in so formidable a storm,
fix Our mind and heart upon the divine Pilot who sits
unseen at the helm. Thou seest, O Lord, how the winds
have burst forth from every side ; how the sea rages, and
the waves are lashed to fury. Conmiand, we beseech
Thee, who alone canst do so, the winds and the sea. Give
back to mankind that tranquillity of order, that true
peace which the world cannot give. By Thy grace and
impulse let men be restored to proper order, with piety
towards God, with justice and love towards their
neighbor, with temperance in regard to themselves, and
with reason controlling all their passions. Let Thy
kingdom come; let the duty of submitting to Thee and
serving Thee be learnt by those who, far from Thee, seek
truth and salvation with a purpose that is all vain. In
Thy laws justice and a father's gentleness are found ; and
Thou grantest to us of Thy own good-will the power to
keep Thy commands. The life of man on earth is a war-
fare, but Thou lookest down upon the struggle and helpest
man to conquer; Thou raisest him that falls, and crownest
him that triumphs." *

>Cf. St Aug. onPa. 32.

THE RIGHT ORDERING OF CHRISTIAN LIFE. 179

Our mind is upheld by these thoughts to a joyful and
firm hope; and as a pledge of heavenly favors, and of
our good-will, we most lovingly in the Lord grant to you.
Venerable Brothers, and to the clergy and people of the
whole Catholic world, the Apostolic Blessing.

ON THE CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS
CITIZENS.

Encyclical Letter SapienticB Christiance, January 10, 1890.

From day to day it becomes more and more evident
how needful it is that the principles of Christian wisdom
should be ever borne in mind, and that the Ufe, the morals,
and the institutions of nations should be wholly conformed
to them. From the fact of these principles having been
disregarded, mischiefs so vast have accrued that no right-
minded man can face the trials of the time being without
grave solicitude, nor contemplate the future without
serious alarm. Progress, not inconsiderable indeed, has
been made towards securing the well-being of the body
and of material things; but all natural advantages that
administer to the senses of man, while bringing in their
train the possession of wealth, power, and limitless resources
may indeed greatly avail to procure the comforts and
increase the enjoyments of life, but are incapable of sat-
isf3dng the soul created for higher and more glorious bene-
fits. To fix the gaze on God, and to aim earnestly at
becoming hke Him, is the supreme law of the life of man.
For we were created in the divine image and likeness,
and are vehemently urged, by our very nature, to return
to Him from whom we have origin. But not by bodily
motion or effort do we make advance towards God, but
through acts of the soul, that is, through knowledge and
love. God is, in very deed, the primal and supreme truth,
and truth the food on which alone the soul is nourished;
and God is hohness in perfection and the sovereign good,

180

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 181

to which solely the will may aspire and which it may
attain, when virtue is its guide.

But what appUes to individual men applies equally
to society — domestic alike and civil. Nature did not
fashion society with intent that man should seek in it his
last end, but that in it and through it he should find suit-
able aids whereby to attain to his own perfection. If, then,
a civil government strives after external advantages merely,
and the attainment of such objects as adorn life; if in
administering public affairs it is wont to put God aside,
and show no solicitude for the upholding of moral law;
it deflects wofully from its right course and from the in-
junctions of nature : nor should such a gathering together
and association of men be accounted as a commonwealth,
but only as a deceitful imitation and make-believe of
civil organization.

As to what We have termed the well-being of the soul,
which consists chiefly in the practice of the true religion
and unswerving observance of the Christian precepts,
We perceive that it is daily losing esteem among men,
either by reason of forgetfulness or disregard, in such
wise that the greater the advance made in the well-being
of the body, the greater is the falling away in that of the
soul. A striking proof of the lessening and enfeebling of
Christian faith is seen in the insults that are, alas! so
frequently, in open day, and before Our very eyes, offered
to the Catholic Church — insults, indeed, to which an age
cherishing religion would on no account have submitted.
For these reasons how great a multitude of men is in-
volved in danger as to their eternal salvation surpasses
belief; but, more than this, nations and even vast empires
themselves cannot long remain unharmed, since upon
the lapsing of Christian institutions and morality, the
main foundation of himian society must necessarily be
uprooted. Force alone will remain to preserve public
tranquillity and order; force, however, is very feeble when
the bulwark of religion has been removed; and being

182 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

more apt to beget slavery than obedience, it bears within
itself the germs of ever-increasing troubles. The present
century has encountered notable disasters, nor is it clear
that some equally terrible are not impending. The very
times in which we live are warning us to seek remedies
there where alone they are to be found — namely, by
re-establishing in the family circle and throughout the
whole range of society the doctrines and practices of the
Christian religion. In this hes the sole means of freeing
us from the ills now weighing us down, of forestalling the
dangers now threatening the world. For the accom-
plishment of this end, Venerable Brothers, We must
bring to bear all the activity and diligence that lie within
Our power. Although We have already, under other
circumstances, and whenever occasion required, treated
of these matters in other Letters, We deem it expedient
in this message to you, to define more in detail the duties
of Catholics, inasmuch as these would, if strictly observed,
avail with wondrous power to save society in all its length
and breadth. We are engaged, as regards matters of
highest moment, in a ^'iolent and well-nigh daily struggle,
wherein it is hard at times for the minds of many not to be
deluded, not to go astray, not to yield. It behooves Us,
Venerable Brothers, to warn, instruct, and exhort each
of the faithful with an earnestness befitting the occasion:
that none may abandon the ivay of truth.

It cannot be doubted that duties more numerous and
of greater moment devolve on Catholics than upon such
as are either not sufficiently enlightened in relation to the
Catholic faith, or who are entirely unacquainted with its
doctrines. Considering that forthwith upon salvation
being brought out for mankind, Jesus Christ laid upon
His apostles the injunction to preach the Gospel to every
creature, He imposed, it is evident, upon all men the duty
of learning thoroughly and believing what they were
taught. This duty is intimately bound up with the
gaining of eternal salvation: He thai helieveth and is bap-

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 1«3

tvxd shall be saved; hut he that believeth not, shall he con-
demned} But the man who has embraced the Christian
faith, as in duty bound, is by that very fact a subject of
the Church as one of the children born of her, and becomes
a member of that greatest and hoHest body, which it is
the special charge of the Roman Pontiff to rule with
supreme power, under its invisible head, Jesus Christ.
Now, if the natural law enjoins us to love devotedly and
to defend the country in which we had birth, and in which
we were brought up, so that every good citizen hesitates
not to face death for his native land, very much more is
it the urgent duty of Christians to be ever quickened by
like feelings towards the Church. For the Church is the
holy city of the living God, born of God Himself, and by
Him built up and established. Upon this earth indeed
she accomphshes her pilgrimage, but by instructing and
guiding men, she summons them to eternal happiness.
We are bound, then, to love dearly the country whence
we have received the means of enjoyment this mortal
life affords, but we have a much more urgent obligation
to love, with ardent love, the Church to which we owe
the hfe of the soul, a Ufe that will endure for ever. For
fitting it is to prefer the good of the soul to the well-being
of the body, inasmuch as duties toward God are of a far
more hallowed character than those toward men.

Moreover, if we would judge aright, the supernatural
love for the Church and the natural love of our own
coimtry proceed from the same eternal principle, since
God himself is their Author and originating Cause. Con-
sequently it follows that between the duties they respect- L
ively enjoin, neither can come into collision with the other. ^
We can, certainly, and should love ourselves, bear our-
selves kindly towards our fellow-men, nourish affection
for the State and the governing powers; but at the same
time we can and must cherish towards the Church a feeling

*2i«rk xvL 16.

184 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS,

of filial piety, and love God with the deepest love of which
we are capable. The order of precedence of these duties
is, however, at times, either under stress of public calam-
ities, or through the perverse will of men, inverted. For
instances occur where the State seems to require from men
as subjects one thing, and religion, from men as Chris-
tians, quite another; and this in reality without any
other ground, than that the rulers of the State either hold
the sacred power of the Church of no account, or endeavor
to subject it to their own will. Hence ^.rises a conflict,
and an occasion, through such conflict, of virtue being
put to the proof. The two powers art confronted and
urge their behests in a contrary sense; to obey both is
wholly impossible. No man can serve two masters,^ for
to please the one amounts to contemning the other. As
to which should be preferred no one ought to balance for
an instant. It is a high crime indeed to withdraw alle-
giance from God in order to please men; an act of consum-
mate wickedness to break the laws of Jesus Christ, in order
to yield obedience to earthly rulers, or, under pretext of
keeping the civil law, to ignore the rights of the Church ;
we ought to obey God rather than men? This answer, which
of old Peter and the other apostles were used to give the
civil authorities who enjoined unrighteous things, we
must, in like circumstances, give always and without
hesitation. No better citizen is there, whether in time
of peace or war, than the Christian who is mindful of his
duty ; but such a one should be ready to suffer all things,
even death itself, rather than abandon the cause of God
or of the Church.

Hence they who blame, and call by the name of sedition,
this steadfastness of attitude in the choice of duty, have
not rightly apprehended the force and nature of true law.
We are speaking of matters widely known, and which
We have before now more than once fully explained.

> Matt vi 24. » Acts v 29.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 185

Law is of its very essence a mandate of right reason, pro-
claimed by a property constituted authority, for the com-
mon good. But true and legitimate authority is void of
sanction, unless it proceed from God the supreme Ruler
and Lord of all. The Almighty alone can commit power
to a man over his fellow-men; nor may that be accounted
as right reason which is in disaccord with truth and with
divine reason; nor that held to be true good which is re-
pugnant to the supreme and unchangeable good, or that
wrests aside and draws away the wills of men from the
charity of God.

Hallowed therefore in the minds of Christians is the
very idea of public authority, in which they recognize
some likeness and symbol as it were of the divine Maj-
esty, even when it is exercised by one unworthy. A just
and due reverence to the laws abides in them, not from
force and threats, but from a consciousness of duty; for
God hath not given us the spirit of fear}

But if the laws of the State are manifestly at variance
with the divine law, containing enactments hurtful to
the Church, or conveying injunctions adverse to the duties
imposed by religion, or if they violate in the person of
the supreme Pontiff the authority of Jesus Christ, then
truly, to resist becomes a positive duty, to obe}^ a crime;
a crime, moreover, combined with misdemeanor against
the State itself, inasmuch as every offence levelled against
religion is also a sin against the State. Here anew it
becomes evident how unjust is the reproach of sedition:
for the obedience due to rulers and legislators is not
refused; but there is a deviation from their will in those
precepts only which they have no power to enjoin. Com-
mands that are issued adversely to the honor due to God,
and hence are beyond the scope of justice, must be looked
upon as anything rather than laws. You are fully aware,
Venerable Brothers, that this is the very contention of

» 2 Timothy L 7.

186 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

the Apostle St. Paul, who, in writing to Titus, after re-
minding Christians that they are to be subject to princes
and powers, and to obey at a word, at once adds. And to be
ready to every good work} Thereby he openly declares
that if laws of men contain injunctions contrary to the
eternal law of God, it is right not to obey them. In like
manner the prince of the apostles gave this courageous
and sublime answer to those who would have deprived
him of the Uberty of preaching the Gospel : If it be just
in the sight of God to hear you rather than God, judge ye, for
we cannot but speak the things which we have seen and heard. ^

Wherefore, to love both countries, that of earth below
and that of heaven above, yet in such mode that the love
of our heavenly surpass the love of our earthly home, and
that human laws be never set above the divine law, is
the essential duty of Christians, and the fountain-head,
so to say, from which all other duties spring. The Re-
deemer of mankind of Himself has said: For this was I
born, and for this came I into the world, that I should give
testimony to the truth.^ In like manner, / am come to cast
fire upon earth, and what will I but that it be kindled? * In
the knowledge of this truth, which constitutes the highest
perfection of the mind; in di\ine charity which, in like
manner, completes the will, all Christian life and hberty
abide. This noble patrimony of truth and charity en-
trusted by Jesus Christ to the Church, she defends and
maintains ever with untiring endeavor and watchfulness.

But with what bitterness and in how many guises war
has been waged against the Church, it would be ill-timed
now to urge. From the fact that it has been vouchsafed
to human reason to snatch from nature, through the
investigations of science, many of her treasured secrets
and to apply them befittingly to the divers requirements
of life, men have become possessed with so arrogant a
sense of their own powers, as already to consider them-

^ Tit. iii. i. » John xviii. 37.

» Acts iv. 19. 20. * Luke adl 49.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 187

selves able to banish from social life the authority and em-
pire of God. Led away by this delusion, they make over
to human nature the dominion of which they think God
has been despoiled; from nature, they maintain, we must
seek the principle and rule of all truth; from nature, they
aver, alone spring, and to it should be referred, all the duties
that religious feeling prompts. Hence they deny all revela-
tion from on high, and all fealty due to the Christian
teaching of morals as well as all obedience to the Church ;
and they go so far as to deny her power of making laws
and exercising every other kind of right, even disallowing
the Church any place among the civil institutions of the
State. These men aspire unjustly, and with their might
strive, to gain control over public affairs and lay hands
on the rudder of the State, in order that the legislation
may the more easily be adapted to these principles, and
the morals of the people influenced in accordance with
them. Whence it comes to pass that in many countries
Catholicism is either openly assailed or else secretly inter-
fered with, full impunity being granted to the most per-
nicious doctrines, while the public profession of Christian
truth is shackled oftentimes with manifold constraints.

Under such evil circumstances therefore each one is
bound in conscience to watch over himself, taking all
means possible to preserve the faith inviolate in the depths
of his soul, avoiding all risks, and arming himself on all
occasions, especially against the various specious sophisms
rife among non-believers. In order to safeguard this
virtue of faith in its integrity. We declare it to be very
profitable and consistent with the requirements of the
time, that each one, according to the measure of his capac-
ity and intelligence, should make a deep study of Chris-
tian doctrine, and imbue his mind with as perfect a knowl-
edge as may be of those matters that are interwoven
with religion and lie within the range of reason. And as
it is necessary that faith should not only abide untarnished
in the soul, but should grow -vNdth ever painstaking increase,

188 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

the suppliant and humble entreaty of the apostles ought
constantly to be addressed to God : Increase our faith}

But in this same matter, touching Christian faith,
there are other duties whose exact and religious observ-
ance, necessary at all times in the interests of eternal
salvation, become more especially so in these our days.
Amid such reckless and widespread folly of opinion, it
is, as we have said, the office of the Church to undertake
the defence of truth and uproot errors from the mind,
and this charge has to be at all times sacredly observed
by her, seeing that the honor of God and the salvation
of men are confided to her keeping. But when necessity
compels, not those only who are invested with power of rule
are bound to safeguard the integrity of faith, but, as St.
Thomas maintains, ''Each one is under obligation to show
forth his faith, either to instruct and encourage others
of the faithful, or to repel the attacks of unbelievers." '
To recoil before an enemy, or to keep silence when from
all sides such clamors are raised against truth, is the part
of a man either devoid of character or who entertains
doubt as to the truth of what he professes to believe. In
both cases such mode of behaving is base and is insulting
to God, and both are incompatible with the salvation of
mankind. This kind of conduct is profitable only to the
5 enemies of the faith, for nothing emboldens the wicked so
7 greatly as the lack of courage on the part of the good.
Moreover, want of vigor on the part of Christians is so
much the more blameworthy, as not seldom httle would
be needed on their part to bring to naught false charges
and refute erroneous opinions; and by always exerting
themselves more strenuously they might reckon upon
being successful. After all, no one can be prevented from
putting forth that strength of soul which is the character-
istic of true Christians; and very frequently by such dis-
play of courage our enemies lose heart and their designs

' Luke xvii. 5. * 2b 2k Q. ii, a. 2 ad. 2.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 189

are thwarted. Christians are, moreover, born for combat,
whereof the greater the vehemence, the more assured, God
aiding, the triumph: Have confidence; I have overcome the
world} Nor is there any ground for alleging that Jesus
Christ, the Guardian and Champion of the Church, needs
not in any manner the help of men. Power certainly
is not wanting to Him, but in His loving kindness He
would assign to us a share in obtaining and applying the
fruits of salvation procured through His grace.

The chief elements of this duty consist in professing
openly and unflinchingly the Catholic doctrine, and in
propagating it to the utmost of our power. For, as is
often said, with the greatest truth, there is nothing
so hurtful to Christian wisdom as that it should not be
known, since it possesses, when loyally received, inherent
power to drive away error. So soon as Catholic truth is
apprehended by a simple and unprejudiced soul, reason
yields assent. Now faith, as a virtue, is a great boon of
divine grace and goodness; nevertheless, the objects them-
selves to which faith is to be applied are scarcely known
in any other way than through the hearing. How shall
they believe Him of whom they have not heard? and how
shall they hear without a preacher? Faith then cometh by
hearing, and hearing by the word of Christ.'^ Since, then,
faith is necessary for salvation, it follows that the word
of Christ must be preached. The office indeed of preaching,
that is, of teaching, lies by divine right in the province of
the pastors, namely of the bishops whom the Holy Ghost
has placed to rule the Church of God? It belongs above
all to the Roman Pontiff, vicar of Jesus Christ, established
as head of the universal Church, teacher of all that pertains
to morals and faith. No one, however, must entertain
the notion that private individuals are prevented from ■
taking some active part in this duty of teaching, especially
those on whom God has bestowed gifts of mind with the

» John xvi. 33. ' Rom. x 14, 17. » Acts xx. 28.

190 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

strong wish of rendering themselves useful. These, so
often as circumstances demand, may take upon themselves,
not indeed the office of the pastor, but the task of com-
municating to others what they have themselves received,
becoming, as it were, hving echoes of their masters in
the faith. Such co-operation on the part of the laity has
seemed to the Fathers of the Vatican Council so opportune
and fruitful of good that they thought well to invite it.
"All faithful Christians, but those chiefly who are in a
prominent position, or engaged in teaching, we entreat,
by the compassion of Jesus Christ, and enjoin by the
authority of the same God and Saviour, that they bring
aid to ward off and eliminate these errors from Holy
Church, and contribute their zealous help in spreading
abroad the light of undefiled faith." ^ Let each one therefore
bear in mind that he both can and should, so far as may be,
preach the Catholic faith by the authority of his example,
and by open and constant profession of the obhgations it
imposes. In respect consequently to the duties that bind
us to God and the Church, it should be borne earnestly
in mind that in propagating Christian truth and warding
off errors, the zeal of the laity should, as far as possible,
be brought actively into play.

The faithful would not, however, so completely and
advantageously satisfy these duties as is fitting they
should were they to enter the field as isolated champions
of the faith. Jesus Christ, indeed, has clearly intimated
that the hostiUty and hatred of men, which He first and
foremost experienced, would be shown in hke degree
towards the work founded by Him, so that many would be
barred from profiting by the salvation for which all are
indebted to His loving kindness. Wherefore He willed
not only to train disciples in His doctrine, but to unite
them into one society, and closely conjoin them in one
body, which is the Church,"^ whereof He would be the Head.

* Const. Dei Filius, sub fine. ' Coloss. i. 24.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS l&l

The life of Jesus Christ pervades, therefore, the entire
framework of this body, cherishes and nourishes its every
member, imiting each with each, and making all work
together to the same end, albeit the action of each be not
the same.^ Hence it follows that not only is the Church
a perfect society far exceUing every other, but it is en-
joined by her Founder that for the salvation of mankind
she is to contend as an army drawn up in battle array. ^ i.
The organization and constitution of Christian society '
can in no wise be changed, neither can any one of its
members hve as he may choose, nor elect that mode of
fighting which best pleases him. For in effect he scatters
and gathers not, who gathers not with the Church and
with Jesus Christ, and all who fight not jointly with him
and with the Church are in very truth contending against
God.3

To bring about such a union of minds and uniformity
of action — ^not without reason so greatly feared by the
enemies of Cathohcism, — the main point is that a perfect
harmony of opinion should prevail; in which intent we
find Paul the Apostle exhorting the Corinthians with
earnest zeal and solemn weight of words: Now I beseech
you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that you
all speak the same thing, and that there be no schisms among
you: but that you be perfectly in the same mind, and in the
same judgment.*

The wisdom of this precept is readily apprehended.
In truth, thought is the principle of action, and hence
there cannot exist agreement of will, nor similarity of
action, if people all think differently one from the other.

In the case of those who profess to take reason as their

* As in one body we have many members, but all the members
have not the same office. — Rom. xii. 4, 5.

' Canticles vi. 9.

* Who is not with Me, is against Me, and he who gathereth not
with Me, scattereth. — Luke xi 22.

* 1 Cor. L 10.

192 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

sole guide, there would hardly be found, if, indeed, there
ever could be found, unity of doctrine Indeed, the art
of knowing things as they really are is exceedingly diffi-
cult; moreover, the mind of man is by nature feeble and
drawn this way and that by a variety of opinions, and not
seldon led astray by impressions coming from without;
and furthermore, the influence of the passions oftentimes
takes away, or certainly at least diminishes, the capacity
for grasping the truth. On this account, in controlhng
State affairs means are often taken to keep those together
by force who cannot agree in their way of thinking.

It happens far otherwise with Christians: they receive
their rule of faith from the Church, by whose authority
and under whose guidance they are conscious that they
have beyond question attained to truth. Consequently
as the Church is one, because Jesus Christ is one, so
throughout the whole Christian world there is, and ought
to be, but one doctrine : One Lord, one faith ; ^ but having
the same spirit of faith,^ they possess the saving prin-
ciple whence proceed spontaneously one and the same
will in all, and one and the same tenor of action.

Now, as the Apostle Paul urges, this unanimity ought
to be perfect. Christian faith reposes not on human
but on divine authority, for what God has revealed "we
beUeve not on account of the intrinsic evidence of the
truth perceived by the natural light of our reason, but on
account of the authority of God revealing, who cannot be
deceived nor himself deceive." ^ It follows as a conse-
quence, that whatever things are manifestly revealed by
God we must receive with a similar and equal assent.
To refuse to believe any one of them is equivalent to
rejecting them all; for those at once destroy the very
groundwork of faith who deny that God has spoken to
men, or who bring into doubt His infinite truth and wisdom.
To determine, however, which are the doctrines divinely

» Eph. iv. 5. * 2 Cor. iv. 13. » Cone. Vat. Const Dei Filiui.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 193

revealed, belongs to the teaching Church, to whom God
has entrusted the safe-keeping and interpretation of His
utterances. But the supreme teacher in the Church is
the Roman Pontiff. Union of minds, therefore, requires,
together with a perfect accord in the one faith, complete
submission and obedience of will to the Church and to
the Roman Pontiff, as to God Himself. This obedience
should, however, be perfect, because it is enjoined by-
faith itself, and has this in common with faith, that it
cannot be given in shreds; — nay, were it not absolute
and perfect in every particular, it might wear the name
of obedience, but its essence would disappear. Christian
usage attaches such value to this perfection of obedience
that it has been, and will ever be, accounted the distin-
guishing mark by which we are able to recognize Catholics.
Admirably does the following passage from St. Thomas of
Aquin set before us the right view: "The formal object of
faith is primary truth, as it is shown forth in the Holy
Scriptures, and in the teaching of the Church, which
proceeds from the fountain-head of truth. It follows,
therefore, that he who does not adhere, as to an infallible
divine rule, to the teaching of the Church, which proceeds
from the primary truth manifested in the Holy Scriptures,
possesses not the habit of faith; but matters of faith he
holds otherwise than true faith. Now it is evident that
he who clings to the doctrines of the Church as to an
infallible rule yields his assent to everything the Church
teaches; but otherwise, if with reference to what the
Church teaches he holds what he hkes, but does not hold
what he does not like, he adheres not to the teaching of
the Church as to an infallible rule, but to his own will." *

"The faith of the whole Church should be one, according
to the precept (1 Corinthians i.lO): Let all speak the same
thing, and let there he no schisms among you; and this cannot
he observed save on condition that questions which arise

* 2a 2ae, q. v. art. 3.

194 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

touching faith should be determined by him who presides
over the whole Church, whose sentence must consequently
be accepted without wavering. And hence to the sole
authority of the supreme Pontiff does it pertain to publish
a new revision of the Symbol, as also to decree all other
matters that concern the universal Church." ^

In defining the limits of the obedience owed to the
pastors of souls, but most of all to the authority of the
Roman Pontiff, it must not be supposed that it is only to
be yielded in relation to dogmas of which the obstinate
denial cannot be disjoined from the crime of heresy. Nay,
further, it is not enough sincerely and firmly to assent to
doctrines which, though not defined by any solemn pro-
nouncement of the Church, are by her proposed to belief,
as divinely revealed, in her common and universal teaching,
and which the Vatican Council declared are to be believed
toith Catholic and divine faith. But this hkewise must
be reckoned amongst the duties of Christians, that they
allow themselves to be ruled and directed by the authority
and leadership of bishops, and above all of the Apostolic
See. And how fitting it is that this should be so any
one can easily perceive. For the things contained in
the divine oracles have reference to God in part, and
in part to man, and to whatever is necessary for the attain-
ment of his eternal salvation. Now, both these, that is
to say, what we are bound to believe, and what we are
obliged to do, are laid down, as we have stated, by the
Church using her divine right, and in the Church by the
supreme Pontiff. Wherefore it belongs to the Pope to
judge authoritatively what things the sacred oracles con-
tain, as well as what doctrines are in harmony, and what
in disagreement, with them; and also for the same reason,
to show forth what things are to be accepted as right, and
what to be rejected as worthless; what it is necessary to do
and what to avoid doing, in order to attain eternal salva-
tion. For, otherwise, there would be no sure interpreter
» 2a 28B, q i. art. 10.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 195

of the commands of God, nor would there be any safe
guide showing man the way he should live.

In addition to what has been laid down, it is necessary
to enter more fully into the nature of the Church. She is
not an association of Christians brought together by
chance, but is a divinely established and admirably con-
stituted society, having for its direct and proximate
purpose to lead the world to peace and hohness. And
since the Church alone has, through the grace of God,
received the means necessary to realize such end, she has
her fixed laws, special spheres of action, and a certain
method, fixed and conformable to her nature, of governing
Christian peoples. But the exercise of such governing
power is difficult, and leaves room for numberless conflicts,
inasmuch as the Church rules peoples scattered through
every portion of the earth, differing in race and customs,
who, living under the sway of the laws of their respective
countries, owe obedience ahke to the civil and religious
authorities. The duties enjoined are incumbent on the
same persons, as already stated, and between them there
exists neither contradiction nor confusion; for some of
these duties have relation to the prosperity of the State,
others refer to the general good of the Church, and both
have as their object to train men to perfection.

The tracing out of these rights and duties being thus
set forth, it is plainly evident that the governing powers
are wholly free to carry out the business of the State;
and this not only not against the wish of the Church, but
manifestly with her co-operation, inasmuch as she strongly
urges to the practice of piety, which implies right feeling
towards God, and by that very fact inspires a right-minded-
ness towards the rulers in the State. The spiritual power,
however, has a far loftier purpose, the Church directing
her aim to govern the minds of men in the defending
of the kingdom of God, and His justice,^ a task she is
wholly bent upon accomplishing.

»Matt. vi. 33.

196 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

No one can, however, without risk to faith, foster
any doubt as to the Church alone having been invested
with such power of governing souls as to exclude altogether
the civil authority. In truth it was not to Caesar but to
Peter that Jesus Christ entrusted the keys of the kingdom
of heaven. From this doctrine touching the relations of
politics and religion originate impori:ant consequences
which We cannot pass over in silence.

A notable difference exists between every kind of civil
rule and that of the kingdom of Christ. If this latter
bear a certain likeness and character to a civil kingdom,
it is distinguished from it by its origin, principle, and
essence. The Church, therefore, possesses the right to
exist and to protect herseK by institutions and laws in
accordance with her nature. And since she not only is a
perfect society in herself, but superior to every other
society of human growth, she resolutely refuses, prompted
alike by right and by duty, to hnk herself to any mere party
and to subject herself to the fleeting exigencies of politics.
On like grounds the Church, the guardian always of her
own right and most observant of that of others, holds
that it is not her province to decide which is the best
amongst many diverse forms of government and the
civil institutions of Christian States, and amid the various
kinds of State rule she does not disapprove of any, provided
the respect due to rehgion and the observance of good
morals be upheld. By such standard of conduct should
the thoughts and mode of acting of every Catholic be
directed. There is no doubt but that in the sphere of
politics ample matter may exist for legitimate difference
of opinion, and that, the single reserve being made of the
rights of justice and truth, all may strive to bring into
actual working the ideas beheved hkely to be more con-
ducive than others to the general welfare. But to attempt
to involve the Church in party strife, and seek to bring
her support to bear against those who take opposite views,
is only worthy of partisans. ReUgion should, on the con*

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 197

trary, be accounted by every one as holy and inviolate;
nay, in the public order itself of States — ^which cannot
be severed from the laws influencing morals and from
religious duties — it is always urgent, and indeed the main
preoccupation, to take thought how best to consult the
interests of Catholicism. Wherever these appear by
reason of the efforts of adversaries to be in danger, all
differences of opinion among CathoUcs should forthwith
cease, so that, like thoughts and counsels prevailing, they
may hasten to the aid of religion, the general and supreme
good, to which all else should be referred. We think it
well to treat this matter somewhat more in detail.

The Church alike and the State, doubtless, both possess
individual sovereignty; hence, in the carrying out of
public affairs, neither obeys the other within the limits
to which each is restricted by its constitution. It does
not hence follow, however, that Church and State are in
any manner severed, and still less antagonistic. Nature,
in fact, has given us not only physical existence, but moral
life likewise. Hence, from the tranquillity of public order,
whose immediate purpose is civil society, man expects
that this may be able to secure all his needful well-being,
and still more supply the sheltering care which perfects
his moral life, which consists mainly in the knowledge
and practice of virtue. He wishes moreover at the same
time, as in duty bound, to find in the Church the aids
necessary to his religious perfection, which consists in the
knowledge and practice of the true religion; of that
religion which is the queen of virtues, because in binding
these to God it completes them all and perfects them.
Therefore they who are engaged in framing constitutions
and in enacting laws should bear in mind the moral and
religious nature of man, and take care to help him, but
in a right and orderly way, to gain perfection, neither en-
joining nor forbidding anything save what is reasonably
consistent with civil as well as with religious requirements.
On this very account the Church cannot stand by, in-

198 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

different as to the import and significance of laws enacted
by the State; not in so far indeed as they refer to the
State, but in so far as, passing beyond their due limits,
they trench upon the rights of the Church. From God
has the duty been assigned to the Church not only to
interpose resistance, if at any time the State rule should
run counter to rehgion, but, further, to make a strong
endeavor that the power of the Gospel may pervade the
law and institutions of the nations. And inasmuch as the
destiny of the State depends mainly on the disposition
of those who are at the head of affairs, it follows that the
Church cannot give countenance or favor to those whom
she knows to be imbued with a spirit of hostility to her;
who refuse openly to respect her rights; who make it
their aim and purpose to tear asunder the alliance that
should, by the very nature of things, connect the interests
of religion with those of the State. On the contrary, she
is (as she is bound to be) the upholder of those who are
themselves imbued with the right way of thinking as to
the relations between Church and State, and who strive
to make them work in perfect accord for the common
good. These precepts contain the abiding principle by
which every Catholic should shape his conduct in regard
to public life. In short, where the Church does not forbid
taking part in public affairs, it is fit and proper to give
support to men of acknowledged worth, and who pledge
themselves to deserve well in the Catholic cause, and on
no account may it be allowed to prefer to them any such
individuals as are hostile to religion.

Whence it appears how urgent is the duty to maintain
perfect union of minds, especially at these our times,
when the Christian name is assailed with designs so con-
certed and subtle. All who have it at heart to attach
themselves earnestly to the Church, which is the pillar and
ground of the truth,^ will easily steer clear of masters who

^ 1 Tim. iii. 15.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS- 199

are lying and promising them, liberty, when they themselves
are slaves of corruption} Nay, more, having made them-
selves sharers in the divine virtue which resides in the
Church, they will triumph over the craft of their adver-
saries by wisdom, and over their violence by courage.
This is not now the time and place to inquire whether
and how far the inertness and internal dissensions of
Catholics have contributed to the present condition of
things; but it is certain at least that the perverse-minded
would exhibit less boldness, and would not have brought
about such an accumulation of ills, if the faith which
ivorketh by charity^ had been generally more energetic
and lively in the souls of men, and had there not been so '
universal a drifting away from the divinely established
rule of morality throughout Christianity. May at least
the lessons afforded by the memory of the past have the
good result of leading to a wiser mode of acting in the
future.

As to those who mean to take part in public affairs |«
they should avoid with the very utmost care two criminal
excesses: so-called prudence and false courage. Some
there are, indeed, who maintain that it is not opportune
boldly to attack evil-doing in its might and when in the
ascendant, lest, as they say, opposition should exasperate
minds already hostile. These make it a matter of guess-
work as to whether they are for the Church or against
her; since on the one hand they give themselves out as
professing the Catholic faith, and yet wish that the Church
should allow certain opinions, at variance with her teach-
ing, to be spread abroad with impunity. They moan
over the loss of faith and the perversion of morals, yet
trouble themselves not to bring any remedy; nay, not
seldom, even add to the intensity of the mischief through
too much forbearance or harmful dissembling. These
same individuals would not have any one entertain a doubt
as to their good-will towards the Holy See; yet they have
» 2 Peter u. 1, 19. » Gal. t. 6.

200 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

always a something by way of reproach against the su-
preme Pontiff. The prudence of men of this cast is of that
kind which is termed by the Apostle Paul wisdom of the
flesh and death of the soul, becaiise it is not subject to the
law of God, neither can it be} Nothing is less calculated
to amend such ills than prudence of this kind. For the
enemies of the Church have for their object — and they
hesitate not to proclaim it, and many among them boast
of it — to destroy outright, if possible, the CathoHc religion,
which is alone the true religion. With such a purpose in
hand they shrink from nothing ; for they are fully conscious
that the more faint-hearted those who withstand them
become, the more easy will it be to work out their wicked
will. Therefore they who cherish the prudence of the
flesh and who pretend to be unaware that every Christian
ought to be a vahant soldier of Christ; they who would
fain obtain the rewards owing to conquerors, while they
are leading the lives of cowards, untouched in the fight,
are so far from thwarting the onward march of the evil-
disposed that, on the contrary, they even help it forward.
/) - On the other hand, not a few, impelled by a false zeal,
•^ or — ^what is more blameworthy still — affecting sentiments
which their conduct beUes, take upon themselves to act
a part which does not belong to them. They would fain
see the Church's mode of action influenced by their ideas
and their judgment to such an extent that everything
done otherwise they take ill or accept with repugnance.
Some, yet again, expend their energies in fruitless con-
tention, being worthy of blame equally with the former.
To act in such manner is not to follow lawful authority
but to forestall it, and. unauthorized, assume the duties
of the spiritual rulers, to the great detriment of the order
which God estabUshed in His Church to be observed
forever, and which He does not permit to be violated
with impunity by any one, whoever he may be.

* The wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to God ; for it is not sub-
ject to the law of God, neither can it be. — Rom. viii. 6, 7

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 201

Honor, then, to those who shrink not from entering the
arena as often as need calls, believing and being con-
vinced that the violence of injustice will be brought to
an end and finally give way to the sanctity of right and
religion! They truly seem invested with the dignity of
time-honored virtue, since they are struggling to defend
rehgion, and chiefly against the faction banded together
to attack Christianity with extreme daring and without
tiring, and to pursue with incessant hostility the Sovereign
Pontiff, fallen into their power. But men of this high
character maintain without wavering the love of obe-
dience, nor are they wont to undertake anything upon
their own authority. Now, since a like resolve to obey,
combined with constancy and sturdy courage, is needful,
so that whatever trials the pressure of events may bring
about, they may be deficient in nothing,^ We greatly
desire to fix deep in the minds of each one that which
Paul calls the wisdom of the spirit,^ for in controlling human
actions this wisdom follows the excellent rule of modera-
tion, with the happy result that no one either timidly
despairs through lack of courage or presumes over-much
from want of prudence. There is, however, a difference
between the political prudence that relates to the general
good and that which concerns the good of individuals.
This latter is shown forth in the case of private persons
who obey the prompting of right reason in the direction
of their own conduct ; while the former is the characteristic
of those who are set over others, and chiefly of rulers of
the State, whose duty it is to exercise the power of com-
mand, so that the political prudence of private individuals
would seem to consist wholly in carrying out faithfully
the orders issued by lawful authority."

' James i. 4.

' Rom. viii. 6.

' ' ' Prudence proceeds from reason, and to reason it specially per-
tains to guide and govern. Whence it follows that insomuch as
any one takes part in the control and government of affairs, in so
far ought he to be gifted with reason and prudence. But it ia

202 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

The like disposition and the same order should prevail
in every Christian State by so much the more that the
political prudence of the Pontiff embraces diverse and
multiform things; for it is his charge not only to rule the
Church, but generally so to regulate the actions of Christian
citizens that these may be in apt conformity to their hope
of gaining eternal salvation. Whence it is clear that in
addition to the complete accordance of thought and deed,
the faithful should imitate the practical political wisdom
of the ecclesiastical authority. Now the administration
of Christian affairs immediately under the Roman Pontiff
appertains to the bishops, who, although they attain not
to the summit of pontifical power, are nevertheless truly
princes in the ecclesiastical hierarchy; and as each one
of them administers a particular church, they are "as
master- workers ... in the spiritual edifice," ^ and they
have members of the clergy to share their duties and carrj'
out their decisions. Every one has to regulate his mode
of conduct according to this constitution of the Church,
which it is not in the power of any man to change. Con-
sequently, just as in the exercise of their episcopal author-
ity the bishops ought to be united with the Apostolic See,
so should the members of the clergy and the laity live in
close union with their bishops. Among the prelates,
indeed, one or other there may be affording scope to

evident that the subject, so far as subject, and the servant, so far
as servant, ought neither to control nor govern, but rather to be
controlled and governed. Prudence, then, is not the special virtue
of the servant, so far as servant, nor of the subject, so far as subject.
But because any man, on account of his character of a reasonable
being, may have some share in the government according to the
degree which reason determines, it is fitting that in such proportion
he should possess the virtue of prudence. Whence it manifestly
results that prudence exists in the ruler, as it exists in the archi-
tect with regard to the building he has to construct, just as is ex-
pressed in the sixth Book of Morals, and that it exists in the sub-
ject, as it exists in the workman employed in the coaatruction." —
St. Thomas, 2a 2£e, Q. ii. 2, 4, 7, art. 12.
> St. Thomas, Quodlib. 1, xiv.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 203

criticism either in regard to personal conduct or in refer-
ence to opinions by him entertained about points of
doctrine; but no private person may arrogate to himself
the office of judge which Christ our Lord has bestowed on
that one alone whom He placed in charge of His lambs
and of His sheep. Let every one bear in mind that most
wise teaching of Gregory the Great: "Subjects should be
admonished not rashly to judge their prelates, even if they
chance to see them acting in a blameworthy m.anner, lest
reproving what is wrong, they be led by pride into greater
wrong. They are to be warned against the danger of
setting themselves up in audacious opposition to the
superiors whose shortcomings they may notice. Should,
therefore, the superiors really have committed grievous
sins, their inferiors, penetrated with the fear of God,
ought not to refuse them respectful submission. The
actions of superiors should not be smitten by the sword
of the word, even when they are rightly judged to have
deserved censure." *

However, all endeavors will avail but little unless our
life be regulated conformably with the discipline of the
Christian virtues. Let us call to mind what Holy Scrip-
ture records concerning the Jewish nation: As long as they
sinned not in the sight of their God, it was well with them:
for their God hateth iniquity. And even . . . when they
had revolted from the way that God had given them to walk
therein, they were destroyed in battles by many nations."*
Now the nation of the Jews bore an inchoate semblance to
the Christian people, and the vicissitudes of their history
in olden times have often foreshadowed the truth that was
to come, saving that God in His goodness has enriched
and loaded us with far greater benefits, and on this account
the sins of Christians are much greater, and bear the stamp
of more shameful and criminal ingratitude.

The Church, it is certain, at no time and in no particu-
lar is deserted by God; hence there is no reason why she
' Reg. Pastor, p. iii. cap. iv. » Judith v 21, 22.

204 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

should be alarmed at the wickedness of men; but in the
case of nations falling away from Christian virtue there is
not a hke ground of assurance, for sin maketh nations
miserable} If every bygone age has experienced the
force of this truth, wherefore should not our own? There
are in truth very many signs which proclaim that just
punishments are already menacing, and the condition of
modern States tends to confirm this belief, since we per-
ceive many of them in sad pHght from intestine disorders,
and not one entirely exempt. But should those leagued
together in wickedness hurry onward in the road they have
boldly chosen, should they increase in influence and
power in proportion as they make headway in their evil
purposes and crafty schemes, there will be ground to fear
lest the very foundations nature has laid for States to
rest upon be utterly destroyed. Nor can such misgivings
be removed by any mere human effort, especially as a vast
number of men, having rejected the Christian faith, are
on that account justly incurring the penalty of their pride,
since bhnded by their passions they search in vain for
truth, laying hold on the false for the true, and thinking
themselves wise when they call evil good, and good evil,
and put darkness in the place of light, and light in the place
of darkness? It is therefore necessary that God come to
the rescue, and that, mindful of His mercy, He turn an
eye of compassion on human society. Hence, We renew
the urgent entreaty We have already made, to redouble
zeal and perseverance, when addressing humble supplica-
tions to our merciful God, so that the virtues whereby
a Christian hfe is perfected may be reawakened. It is,
however, urgent before all, that charity, which is the main
foundation of the Christian Hfe, and apart from which
the other virtues exist not or remain barren, should be
quickened and maintained. Therefore is it that the
Apostle St. Paul, after having exhorted the Colossians to
flee all vice and cultivate all virtue, adds: Above all things
* Prov. xiv. 34. ' Isa. v. 20.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 205

have chanty, which is the bond of perfection} Yea, truly,
charity is the bond of perfection, for it binds intimately
to God those whom it has embraced and with loving tender-
ness, causes them to draw their life from God, to act with
God, to refer all to God. Howbeit the love of God should
not be severed from the love of our neighbor, since men
have a share in the infinite goodness of God and bear in
themselves the impress of His image and likeness. This
commandment we have from God, that he who loveth God,
love also his brother.'^ If any man say I love God, and he
hateth his brother, he is a liar.^ And this commandment
concerning charity its divine proclaimer styled new, not
in the sense that a previous law, or even nature itself,
had not enjoined that men should love one another, but
because the Christian precept of loving each other in that
manner was truly new, and quite unheard of in the mem-
ory of man. For that love with which Jesus Christ is
beloved by His Father and with which He Himself loves
men. He obtained for His disciples and followers, that they
might be of one heart and of one mind in Him by charity,
as He Himself and His Father are one by their nature.
No one is unaware how deeply and from the very beginning
that precept has been implanted in the breast of Christians,
and what abundant fruits of concord, mutual benevolence,
piety, patience, and fortitude it has produced. Why, then,
should we not devote ourselves to imitate the examples
set by our fathers? The very times in which we live
should afford sufficient motives for the practice of charity.
Since impious men are bent on giving fresh impulse to
their hatred against Jesus Christ, Christians should be
quickened anew in piety ; and charity, which is the inspirer
of lofty deeds, should be imbued with new life. Let
dissensions therefore, if there be any, wholly cease; let
those strifes which waste the strength of those engaged in
the fight, without any advantage resulting to religion,
be scattered to the winds; let all minds be united in
' Coloss. iii. 14. ^ 1 John iv. 21, ^ j^ji^j j^^ 20.

206 CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS.

faith and all hearts in charity, so that, as it behooves, life
may be spent in the practice of the love of God and the
love of men.

This is a suitable moment for us to exhort especially
heads of families to govern their households according to
these precepts, and to be solicitous without failing for the
right training of their children. The family may be regarded
■ as the cradle of civil society, and it is in great measure
within the circle of family Hfe that the destiny of the
State is fostered. Whence it is that they who would break
away from Christian disciphne are working to corrupt
family life, and to destroy it utterly, root and branch.
From such an unholy purpose they allow not themselves
to be turned aside by the reflection that it cannot, even
in any degree, be carried out without inflicting cruel out-
rage on the parents. These hold from nature their right
of training the children to whom they have given birth,
with the obligation superadded of shaping and directing
the education of their little ones to the end for which God
vouchsafed the privilege of transmitting the gift of life.
It is then incumbent on parents to strain every nerve to
ward off such an outrage, and to strive manfully to have
and to hold exclusive authority to direct the education
of their offspring, as is fitting, in a Christian manner;
and first and foremost to keep them away from schools
where there is risk of their drinking in the poison of
impiety. Where the right education of youth is con-
cerned, no amount of trouble or labor can be undertaken,
how great soever, but that even greater still may not be
called for. In this regard indeed there are to be found in
many countries CathoUcs worthy of general admiration,
who incur considerable outlay and bestow much zeal in
founding schools for the education of youth. It is highly
desirable that such noble example may be generously
followed, where time and circumstances demand; yet all
should be intimately persuaded that the minds of children
are most influenced by the training they receive at home.

CHIEF DUTIES OF CHRISTIANS AS CITIZENS. 207

If in their early years they find within the walls of their
homes the rule of an upright life and the discipline of
Christian virtues, the future welfare of the State will in
great measure be guaranteed.

And now We seem to have touched upon those matters
which Catholics ought chiefly nowadays to follow, or
mainly to avoid. It rests with you. Venerable Brothers,
to take measures that Our voice may reach everywhere,
and that one and all may understand how urgent it is to
reduce to practice the teachings set forth in this Our Letter.
The observance of these duties cannot be troublesome
or onerous, for the yoke of Jesus Christ is sweet, and His
burden is light. If anything, however, appear too difficult
of accomplishment, you will afford aid by the authority
of your example, so that each one of the faithful may make
more strenuous endeavor, and display a soul unconquered
by difficulties. Bring it home to their minds, as We have
ourselves oftentimes conveyed the warning, that matters
of the highest moment and worthy of all honor are at
stake, for the safeguarding of which every most toilsome
effort should be readily endured; and that a sublime
reward is in store for the labors of a Christian life. On the
other hand, to refrain from doing battle for Jesus Christ,
amounts to fighting against him; He Himself assures
us He vnll deny before His Father in Heaven, those who
shall have refused to confess Him on earth} As for Our-
selves and you all, never assuredly, so long as life lasts,
shall We allow Our authority. Our counsels, and Our
solicitude to be in any wise lacking in the conflict. Nor
is it to be doubted but that especial aid of the great God
will be vouchsafed, so long as the struggle endures, to
the flock ahke and to the pastors.

Sustained by this confidence, as a pledge of heavenly
gifts, and of Our loving-kindness in the Lord to you,
Venerable Brothers, to your clergy and to all your people,
We accord the Apostolic Benediction.
» Luke ix, 26.

THE CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.
Encyclical Letter Rerum Novarum, May 15, 1891.

That the spirit of revolutionary change, which has long
been disturbing the nations of the world, should have passed
beyond the sphere of pohtics and made its influence felt
in the cognate sphere of practical economics is not sur-
prising. The elements of the conflict now raging are
unmistakable in the vast expansion of industrial pursuits
and the marvellous discoveries of science; in the changed
relations between masters and workmen; in the enormous
fortunes of some few individuals, and the utter poverty
of the masses; m the increased self-reliance and closer
mutual combination of the working classes; as also, finally,
in the prevailing moral degeneracy. The momentous
gravity of the state of things now obtaining fills every
mind with painful apprehension; wise men are discussing
it; practical men are proposing schemes; popular meetings,
legislatures, and rulers of nations are all busied with it — and
actually there is no question which has taken a deeper
hold on the public mind.

Therefore, Venerable Brethren, as on former occasions
when it seemed opportune to refute false teaching, We
have addressed you in the interests of the Church and of
the commonweal, and have issued Lettei^ bearing on
"Political Power," "Human Liberty," "The Christian
Constitution of the State," and like matters, so have We
thought it expedient now to speak on The Condition of
THE Working Classes. It is a subject on which We have
already touched more than once, incidentally. But in the

208

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 209

present Letter, the responsibility of the Apostolic office
urges us to treat the question of set purpose and in detail, in
order that no misapprehension may exist as to the principles
which truth and justice dictate for its settlement. The dis-
cussion is not easy, nor is it void of danger. It is no easy
matter to define the relative rights and mutual duties of
the rich and of the poor, of capital and of labor. And
the danger lies in this, that crafty agitators are intent
on making use of these differences of opinion to pervert
men's judgments and to stir up the people to revolt.

But all agree, and there can be no question whatever,
that some remedy must be found, and found quickly, for
the misery and wretchedness pressing so heavily and
unjustly at this moment on the vast majority of the work-
ing classes.

For the ancient workingmen's guilds were abolished in
the last century, and no other organization took their place.
Public institutions and the very laws have set aside the
ancient religion. Hence by degrees it has come to pass
that workingmen have been surrendered, all isolated and
helpless, to the hard-heartedness of employers and the
greed of unchecked competition. The mischief has been
increased by rapacious usury, which, although more than
once condemned by the Church, is nevertheless, under a
different guise, but with the like injustice, still practised by
covetous and grasping men. To this must be added the
custom of working by contract, and the concentration of so
many branches of trade in the hands of a few individuals ;
so that a small number of very rich men have been able
to lay upon the teeming masses of the laboring poor a
yoke little better than that of slavery itself.

To remedy these wrongs the Socialists, working on the
poor man's envy of the rich, are striving to do away with
private property, and contend that individual possessions
should become the common property of all, to be admin-
istered by the State or by municipal bodies. They hold
that by thus transferring property from private individuals

210 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

to the community, the present mischievous state of things
will be set to rights, inasmuch as each citizen will then
get his fair share of whatever there is to enjoy. But their
contentions are so clearly powerless to end the contro-
versy that were they carried into effect the workingman
himself would be among the first to suffer. They are,
moreover, emphatically unjust, because they would rob the
lawful possessor, bring State action into a sphere not with-
in its competence, and create utter confusion in the com-
munity.

It is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in
I remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of
his work is to obtain property, and thereafter to hold it aa
his very own. If one man hires out to another his streng-th
or skill, he does so for the purpose of receiving in return
what is necessary for sustenance and education; he there^
fore expressly intends to acquire a right full and real, not
only to the remuneration, but also to the disposal of such
remuneration, just as he pleases. Thus, if he lives spar^
ingly, saves money, and, for greater security, invests his
savings in land, the land, in such case, is only his wages
under another form; and, consequently, a workingman'a
little estate thus purchased should be as completely at his
full disposal as are the wages he receives for his labor. But
it is precisely in such power of disposal that ownership
obtains, whether the property consist of land or chattels.
Socialists, therefore, by endeavoring to transfer the pos-
sessions of individuals to the community at large, strike
at the interests of every wage-earner, since they would
deprive him of the liberty of disposing of his wages, and
thereby of all hope and possibiUty of increasing his stock
and of bettering his condition in life.
What is of far greater moment, however, is the fact that
^ the remedy they propose is manifestly against justice. For
T every man has by nature the right to possess property as
his own. This is one of the chief points of distinction
between man and the animal creation, for the brute has no

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 211

power of self-direction, but is governed by two main in-
stincts, which keep his powers on the alert, impel him to
develop them in a fitting manner, and stimulate and deter-
mine him to action without any power of choice. One of
these instincts is self-preservation, the other the propaga-
tion of the species. Both can attain their purpose by means
of things which lie within range; beyond their verge the
brute creation cannot go, for they are moved to action by
their senses only, and in the special direction which these
suggest. But with man it is wholly different. He pos-
sesses, on the one hand, the full perfection of the animal
being, and hence enjoys, at least as much as the rest of
the animal kind, the fruition of things material. But
animal nature, however perfect, is far from representing
the human being in its completeness, and is in truth but
humanity's humble handmaid, made to serve and to obey.
It is the mind, or reason, which is the predominant element
in us who are human creatures; it is this which renders a
human being human, and distinguishes him essentially
and generically from the brute. And on this very account
— that man alone among the animal creation is endowed
with reason — ^it must be within his right to possess things
not merely for temporary and momentary use, as other
hving things do, but to have and to hold them in stable
and permanent possession; he must have not only things
that perish in the use of them, but those also which,
though they have been reduced into use, remain his
own for further use.

This becomes still more clearly evident if man's nature
be considered a httle more deeply. For man, faiihoming by
his faculty of reason matters without munber, and linking
the future with the present, becoming, furthermore, by
taking enlightened forethought, master of his own acts,
guides his ways under the eternal law and the power of God,
whose providence governs all things. Wherefore it is in
his power to exercise his choice not only as to matters that
regard his present welfare, but also about those which he

212 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

deems may be for his advantage in time yet to come.
Hence man not only can possess the fruits of the earth,
but also the very soil, inasmuch as from the produce of
the earth he has to lay by provision for the future. Man's
needs do not die out, but recur; although satisfied to-
day they demand fresh suppMes for to-morrow. Nature
accordingly owes to man a storehouse that shall never fail,
affording the daily supply for his daily wants. And this
he finds solely in the inexhaustible fertihty of the earth.
, Neither do we, at this stage, need to bring into action
tl the interference of the State. Man precedes the State, and
possesses, prior to the formation of any State, the right of
providing for the sustenance of his body. . Now to affirm
that God has given the earth for the use and enjoyroent of
the whole human race is not to deny that private property
is lawful. For God has granted the earth to mankind in
general, not in the sense that all without distinction can deal
with it as they like, but rather that no part of it has been
assigned to any one in particular, and that the limits of
private possession have been left to be fixed by man's
own industry, and by the laws of individual races. More-
over, the earth, even though apportioned among private
owners, ceases not thereby to minister to the needs of
all, inasmuch as there is no one who does not sustain
life from what the land produces. Those who do not
possess the soil, contribute their labor; hence it may
truly be said that all human subsistence is derived either
from labor on one's own land, or from some toil, some
calling which is paid for either in the produce of the land
itself, or in that which is exchanged for what the land
brings forth.

Here, again, we have further proof that private owner-
ship is in accordance with the law of nature. Truly, that
which is required for the preservation of fife, and for fife's
well-being, is produced in great abundance from the soil,
but not until man has brought it into cultivation and
expended upon it his soficitude and skill. Now, when man

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 213

thus turns the activity of his mind and the strength of his
body towards procuring the fruits of nature, by such act he
makes his own that portion of nature's field which he
cultivates — that portion on which he leaves, as it were, the
impress of his individuality ; and it cannot but be just that
he should possess that portion as his very own, and have a
right to hold it without any one being justified in violating
that right.

So strong and convincing are these arguments, that it
seems amazing that some should now be setting up anew
certain obsolete opinions in opposition to what is here laid
down. They assert that it is right for private persons to
have the use of the soil and its various fruits, but that it is
unjust for any one to possess outright either the land on
which he has built, or the estate which he has brought
under cultivation. But those who deny these rights do not
perceive that they are defrauding man of what his own
labor has produced. For the soil which is tilled and
cultivated with toil and skill utterly changes its conditions :
it was wild before, now it is fruitful ; was barren, but now
brings forth in abundance. That which has thus altered
and improved the land becomes so truly part of itself as to
be in great measure indistinguishable and inseparable from
it. Is it just that the fruit of a man's own sweat and labor
should be possessed and enjoyed by any one else? As
effects follow their cause, so is it just and right that the
results of labor should belong to those who have bestowed
their labor.

With reason, then, the common opinion of mankind, little
affected by the few dissentients who have contended for
the opposite view, has found in the careful study of nature,
and in the laws of nature, the foundations of the division
of property, and the practice of all ages has consecrated
the principle of private ownership, as being pre-eminently
in conformity with, human nature, and as conducing in the
most unmistakable manner to the peace and tranquillity of
human existence. The same principle is confirmed and

214 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

enforced by the civil laws — laws which, so long as the}'-
are just, derive from the law of nature their binding force.
The authority of the divine law adds its sanction, forbid-
ding us in severest terms even to covet that which is an-
other's:— Thou shall not covet thy neighbor's vrife; nor his
house, nor his field, nor his man-servant, nor his maidservant,
nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything which is his}

The rights here spoken of, belonging to each individual
man, are seen in much stronger light when considered in
relation to man's social and domestic obligations. In
choosing a state of life, it is indisputable that all are at
full hberty to follow the counsel of Jesus Christ as to
observing virginity, or to bind themselves by the marriage
tie. No human law can abolish the natural and original
right of marriage, nor in any way limit the chief and
principal purpose of marriage, ordained by God's author-
ity from the begirming. Increase and multiply} Hence
we have the family; the ''society" of a man's house —
a society Umited indeed in numbers, but no less a true
"society," anterior to every kind of State or nation,
invested -with rights and duties of its ot\ti, totally inde-
pendent of the civil community.

That right of property, therefore, which has been proved
to belong naturally to individual persons, must in hke wise
belong to a man in his capacity of head of a family; nay,
such person must possess this right so much the more
clearly in proportion as his position multipUes his duties.
For it is a most sacred law of nature that a father should
provide food and all necessaries for those whom he has
begotten; and, similarly, nature dictates that a man's
children, who carry on, so to speak, and continue his own
personaHty, should be by him provided with all that is
needful to enable them to keep themselves honorably
from want and miserj'- amid the uncertainties of this mortal
life. Now in no other way can a father effect this except

' Deuteronomy v. 21. ' Genesis i. 28.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 215

by the ownership of lucrative property, which he can
transmit to his children by inheritance. A family, no less
than a State, is, as we have said, a true society, governed
by a power within its sphere, that is to say, by the father.
Provided, therefore, the limits which are prescribed by the
very purposes for which it exists be not trangressed, the
family has at least equal rights with the State in the choice
and pursuit of the things needful to its preservation and its
just liberty.

We say, at least equal rights; for inasmuch as the do-
mestic household is antecedent, as well in idea as in fact,
to the gathering of men into a community, the family
must necessarily have rights and duties which are prior to
those of the Community, and founded more immediately
in nature. If the citizens of a State — in other words
the families — on entering into association and fellowship,
were to experience at the hands of the State hindrance
instead of help, and were to find their rights attacked
instead of being upheld, such association should be held in
detestation, rather than be an object of desire.

The contention, then, that the civil government should
at its option intrude into and exercise intimate control over
the family and the household, is a great and pernicious
error. True, if a family finds itself in exceeding distress,
utterly deprived of the counsel of friends, and without
any prospect of extricating itself, it is right that extreme
necessity be met by public aid, since each family is a
part of the commonwealth. In like manner, if within
the precincts of the household there occur grave dis-
turbance of mutual rights, public authority should inter-
vene to force each party to yield to the other its proper due ;
for this is not to deprive citizens of their rights, but justly
and properly to safeguard and strengthen them. But the
rulers of the State must go no further: here nature bids
them stop. Paternal authority can be neither abolished
nor absorbed by the State; for it has the same source as
human life itself, "The child belongs to the father," and

216 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

is, as it were, the continuation of the father's personality;
and, speaking strictly, the child takes its place in civil
society, not of its own right, but in its quahty as member
of the family in which it is bom. And for the very reason
that "the child belongs to the father," it is, as St. Thomas
of Aquin says, "before it attains the use of free-will, under
power and charge of its parents." * The Socialists, there-
fore, in setting aside the parent and setting up a State
supervision, act against natural justice, and break into
pieces the stability of all family life.

And not only is such interference unjust, but it is quite
certain to harass and worry all classes of citizens, and
subject them to odious and intolerable bondage. It would
throw open the door to envy, to mutual invective, and to
discord; the sources of wealth themselves would run dry,
for no one would have any interest in exerting his talents
or his industry; and that ideal equality about which they
entertain pleasant dreams would be in reality the levelling
down of all to a like condition of misery and degradation.

Hence it is clear that the main tenet of Socialism, com-
munity of goods, must be utterly rejected, since it onty in-
jures those whom it would seem meant to benefit, is directly
contrary to the natural rights of mankind, and would
introduce confusion and disorder into the commonweal.
The first and most fundamental principle, therefore, if
one would undertake to alleviate the condition of the
masses, must be the inviolabihty of private property.
This being estabhshed, we proceed to show where the
remedy sought for must be found.

We approach the subject with confidence, and in the
exercise of the rights which manifestly appertain to us,
for no practical solution of this question will be found apart
from the intervention of Religion and of the Church. It
is We who are the chief guardian of Religion and the chief
dispenser of what pertains to the Church, and We must

* St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 2a 2se Q. x. Art 12.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 217

not by silence neglect the duty incumbent on Us. Doubt-
less this most serious question demands the attention and
the efforts of others besides ourselves — to wit, of the rulers
of States, of employers of labor, of the wealthy, aye, of the
working classes themselves, for whom We are pleading.
But We affirm without hesitation that all the striving of
men will be vain if they leave out the Church. It is the
Church that insists, on the authority of the Gospel, upon
those teachings whereby the conflict can be brought to an
end, or rendered, at least, far less bitter; the Church uses her
efforts not only to enlighten the mind but to direct by her
precepts the life and conduct of each and all; the Church
improves and betters the condition of the workingman by
means of numerous useful organizations; does her best to
enlist the services of all ranks in discussing and endeavor-
ing to meet, in the most practical way, the claims of the
working classes; and acts from the positive view that for
these purposes recourse should be had, in due measure and
degree, to the intervention of the law and of State authority.
Let it, then, be taken as granted, in the first place, that
the condition of things human must be endured, for it is
impossible to reduce civil society to one dead level.
Socialists may in that intent do their utmost, but all
striving against nature is in vain. There naturally exist
among mankind manifold difTerences of the most important
kind; people differ in capacity, skill, health, strength;
and unequal fortune is a necessary result of unequal con-
dition. Such inequality is far from being disadvantageous
either to individuals or to the community. Social and
public life can only be maintained by means of various
kinds of capacuj'' for business and the playing of many
parts; and each man, as a rule, chooses the part which
suits his own peculiar domestic condition. As regards
bodily labor, even had man never fallen from the state of
innocence, he would not have remained wholly unoccupied ;
but that which would then have been his free choice and
his delight became afterwards compulsory, and the pain-

218 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

ful expiation for his disobedience. Cursed be the earth
in thy work; in thy labor thou shalt eat of it all the days of
thy life} In like manner, the other pains and hardships
of life will have no end or cessation on earth; for the con-
sequences of sin are bitter and hard to bear, and they must
accompany man so long as life lasts. To suffer and to
endure, therefore, is the lot of humanity; let them strive
as they may, no strength and no artifice will ever succeed
in banishing from human life the ills and troubles which
beset it. If any there are who pretend differently —
who hold out to a hard-pressed people the boon of free-
dom from pain and trouble, an undisturbed repose, and
constant enjoyment — they delude the people and impose
upon them, and their lying promises will only one day
bring forth evils worse than the present. Nothing is
more useful than to look upon the world as it really is —
and at the same time to seek elsewhere, as we have said,
for the solace to its troubles.

The great mistake made in regard to the matter now
under consideration is to take up with the notion
that class is naturally hostile to class, and that the
wealthy and the workingmen are intended by nature
to live in mutual conflict. So irrational and so false is
this view, that the direct contrary is the truth. Just as
the symmetry of the human frame is the resultant of the
disposition of the bodily members, so in a State is it or-
dained by nature that these two classes should dwell in
harmony and agreement, and should, as it were, groove
into one another, so as to maintain the balance of the
body politic. Each needs the other: Capital cannot can-
not do without Labor, nor Labor without Capital. Mutual
agreement results in pleasantness of life and the beauty
of good order; while perpetual conflict necessarily pro-
duces confusion and savage barbarity. Now, in prevent-
ing such strife as this, and in uprooting it, the efficacy

* Genesis iu. 17.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 219

of Christian institutions is marvellous and manifold.
First of all, there is no intermediary more powerful than
Religion (whereof the Church is the interpreter and guard-
ian) in drawing the rich, and the poor bread-winners,
together, by reminding each class of its duties to the
other, and especially of the obligations of justice. Thus
Religion teaches the laboring man and the artisan to
carry out honestly and fairly all equitable agreements freely
entered into; never to injure the property, nor to outrage
the person, of an employer; never to resort to violence in
defending their own cause, nor to engage in riot or disorder;
and to have nothing to do with men of evil principles, who
work upon the people with artful promises, and excite
foolish hopes which usually end in useless regrets, followed
by insolvency. Religion teaches the wealthy owner and the
employer that their work-people are not to be accounted
their bondsmen; that in every man they must respect his
dignity and worth as a man and as a Christian; that labor
is not a thing to be ashamed of, if we lend ear to right reason
and to Christian philosophy, but is an honorable calling,
enabling a man to sustain his life in a way upright and
creditable; and that it is shameful and inhuman to treat
men like chattels to make money by, or to look upon
them merely as so much muscle or physical power. Again,
therefore, the Church teaches that, as Religion and things
spiritual and mental are among the workingman's main
concerns, the employer is bound to see that the worker has
time for his rehgious duties; that he be not exposed to
corrupting influences and dangerous occasions ; and that he
be not led away to neglect his home and family, or to
squander his earnings. Furthermore, the employer must
never tax his work-people beyond their strength, or employ
them in work unsuited to their sex or age. His great and
principal duty is to give every one a fair wage. Doubtless,
before deciding whether wages are adequate, many things
have to be considered ; but wealthy owners and all masters
of labor should be mindful of this — that to exercise pressure

220 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

upon the indigent and the destitute for the sake of gain, and
to gather one's profit out of the need of another, is con-
demned by all laws, human and divine. To defraud any-
one of wages that are his due is a crime which cries to the
avenging anger of Heaven. Behold, the hire of the laborers
. . . which by fraud hath been kept back by you, crieth aloud;
and the cry of them hath entered into the ears of the Lord of
Sabaoth} Lastly, the rich must religiously refrain from
cutting down the workmen's earnings, whether by force, by
fraud, or by usurious dealing; and with all the greater
reason because the laboring man is, as a rule, weak and
unprotected, and because his slender means should in
proportion to their scantiness be accounted sacred.

Were these precepts carefully obeyed and followed out,
would they not be sufficient of themselves to keep under all
strife and all its causes?

But the Church, with Jesus Christ as her Master and
Guide, aims higher still. She lays down precepts yet
more perfect, and tries to bind class to class in friendliness
and good feeling. The things of earth cannot be under-
stood or valued aright without taking into consideration
the life to come, the life that will know no death. Exclude
the idea of futurity, and forthwith the very notion of what
is good and right would perish; nay, the whole scheme
of the universe would become a dark and unfathomable
mystery. The great truth which we learn from Nature
herself is also the grand Christian dogma on which Religion
rests as on its foundation — that when we have given up
this present life, then shall we really begin to live. God
has not created us for the perishable and transitory things
of earth, but for things heavenly and everlasting; He has
given us this world as a place of exile, and not as oui
abiding-place. As for riches and the other things which
men call good and desirable, whether we have them in
abundance, or lack them altogether — so far as eternal

' St. James v. 4.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 221

happiness is concerned — it matters little; the only impor-
tant thing is to use them aright. Jesus Christ, when He
redeemed us with plentiful redemption, took not away the
pains and sorrows which in such large proportion are
woven together in the web of our mortal life. He trans-
formed them into motives of virtue and occasions of merit:
and no man can hope for eternal reward unless he follow
in the blood-stained footprints of his Saviour. // we
suffer with Him, we shall also reign with Him. ^ Christ's
labors and sufferings, accepted of His own free-will, have
marvellously sweetened all suffering and all labor. And
not only by His example, but by His grace and by the
hope held forth of everlasting recompense, has He made
pain and grief more easy to endure; for that which is at
present momentary and light of our tribulation, worketh for
us above measure exceedingly an eternal weight of glory?

Therefore those whom fortune favors are warned that
freedom from sorrow and abundance of earthly riches are
no warrant for the bliss that shall never end, but rather are
obstacles ; ^ that the rich should tremble at the threaten-
ings of Jesus Christ — threatenings so unwonted in the
mouth of Our Lord *■ — and that a most strict account must
be given to the Supreme Judge for all we possess. The
chief and most excellent rule for the right use of money
is one which the heathen philosophers hinted at, but which
the Church has traced out clearly, and has not only made
known to men's minds, but has impressed upon their
lives. It rests on the principle that it is one thing to
have a right to the possession of money, and another to
have a right to use money as one wills. Private owner-
ship, as we have seen, is the natural right of man ; and to
exercise that right, especially as members of society, is
not only lawful, but absolutely necessary. " It is lawful,"
says St. Thomas of Aquin, ''for a man to hold private
property; and it is also necessary for the carrying on of

» 2 Tim. ii. 12. 3 gt. Matt. xix. 23, 24.

2 2 Cor. iv. 17. * St. Luke vi. 24, 25.

222 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

human existence." ^ But if the question be asked, How
must one's possessions be used? the Church rephes with-
out hesitation in the words of the same holy Doctor:
'' Man should not consider his outward possessions as his
own, but as common to all, so as to share them without
hesitation when others are in need. Whence the Apostle
saith. Command the rich of this world ... to offer with
no stint, to apportion largely." ^ True, no one is com-
manded to distribute to others that which is required for
his own needs and those of his household; nor even to
give away what is reasonably required to keep up becom-
ingly his condition in life; " for no one ought to live other
than becomingly." ' But when what necessity demands
has been supplied, and one's standing fairly taken thought
for, it becomes a duty to give to the indigent out of what
remains over. Of that which remaineth, give alms.* It
is a duty, not of justice (save in extreme cases), but of
Christian charity — a duty not enforced by human law.
But the laws and judgments of men must yield place to
the laws and judgments of Christ the true God, who in
many ways urges on His followers the practice of alms-
giving— It is more blessed to give than to receive; ^ and who
will count a kindness done or refused to the poor as done or
refused to Himself — As long as you did it to one of My least
brethren, you did it to Me.^ To sum up, then, what has been
said : Whoever has received from the divine bounty a large
share of temporal blessings, whether they be external and
corporeal, or gifts of the mind, has received them for the
purpose of using them for the perfecting of his own naturej
and, at the same time, that he may employ them, as the
steward of God's providence, for the benefit of others.
''He that hath a talent," says St. Gregorj'^ the Great, "let
him see that he hide it not; he that hath abundance, let
him quicken himself to mercy and generosity; he that hath

» 2a 2se Q. Ixvi. Art. 2. * St. Luke xi. 41.

« Ibid. Q. Ixv. Art. 2. » Acts xx. 35.

» Ibid. Q. xxxii. Art. 6. • St. Matt. xxv. 40.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 223

art and skill, let him do his best to share the use and the
utility thereof with his neighbor." ^

As for those who possess not the gifts of fortune, they
are taught by the Church that in God's sight poverty is
no disgrace, and that there is nothing to be ashamed of
in seeking one's bread by labor. This is enforced by what
we see in Christ Himself, who whereas He was rich, for our
sakes became poor;^ and who, being the Son of God, and
God Himself, chose to seem and to be considered the son
of a carpenter — nay, did not disdain to spend a great part
of His life as a carpenter Himself. Is not this the carpenter,
the son of Mary?^ From contemplation of this divine
exemplar, it is more easy to understand that the true
worth and nobility of man lies in his moral qualities, that
is, in virtue ; that virtue is moreover the common inheritr-
ance of men, equally within the reach of high and low,
rich and poor; and that virtue, and virtue alone, wherever
found, will be followed by the rewards of everlasting
happiness. Nay, God Himself seems to incline rather to
those who suffer misfortune; for Jesus Christ calls the
poor "blessed";* He lovingly invites those in labor and
grief to come to Him for solace;^ and He displays the
tenderest charity towards the lowly and the oppressed.
These reflections cannot fail to keep down the pride of
those who are well to do, and to embolden the spirit of
the afflicted; to incline the former to generosity and the
latter to meek resignation. Thus the separation which
pride would set up tends to disappear, nor will it be
difficult to make rich and poor join hands in friendly
concord.

But, if Christian precepts prevail, the respective classea

* St. Gregory the Great, Horn. ix. in Evangel, n, 7.
«2 Cor. viii. 9

» St. Mark vi. 3.

* St. Matt. V. 3 : Blessed are the poor in spirit.

' St. Matt. xi. 28 : Come to Me all you that labor and are burdened,
and I will refresh you.

224 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

will not only be united in the bonds of friendship, but also
in those of brotherly love. For they will understand and
feel that all men are children of the same common Father,
who is God; that all have alike the same last end, which
is God Himself, who alone can make either men or angels
absolutely and perfectly happy; that each and all are
redeemed and made sons of God, by Jesus Christ, the
first-born among many brethren; that the blessings of nature
and the gifts of grace belong to the whole human race in
common, and that from none except the unworthy is
withheld the inheritance of the kingdom of heaven. //
sons, heirs also; heirs indeed of God, and co-heirs of Christ}

Such is the scheme of duties and of rights which is
shown forth to the world by the Gospel. Would it not
seem that, were society penetrated with ideas like these,
strife must quickly cease?

But the Church, not content with pointing out the
remedy, also applies it. For the Church does her utmost
to teach and to train men, and to educate them; and by
the intermediary of her bishops and clergy diffuses her
salutary teachings far and wide. She strives to influence
the mind and the heart so that all may willingly yield them-
selves to be formed and guided by the commandments of
God. It is precisely in this fundamental and momentous
matter, on which everything depends, that the Church
possesses a power peculiarly her own. The agencies
which she employs are given to her by Jesus Christ Himself
for the very purpose of reaching the hearts of men, and
derive their efficiency from God. They alone can reach
the innermost heart and conscience, and bring men to
act from a motive of duty, to resist their passions and
appetites, to love God and their fellow-men with a love
that is singular and supreme, and to break down courage-
ously every barrier which impedes the way of a life of
virtue.

iRom. viii. 17.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 225

On this subject we need but recall for one moment the
examples recorded in history. Of these facts there cannot
be any shadow of doubt: for instance, that civil society
was renovated in every part by the teachings of Christi-
anity; that in the strength of that renewal the human
race was hfted up to better things — nay, that it was brought
back from death to life, and to so excellent a life that
nothing more perfect had been known before, or will
come to be known in the ages that have yet to be. Of this
beneficent transformation Jesus Christ was at once the
First Cause and the final end; as from Him all came, so to
Him was all to be brought back. For when the human
race, by the light of the Gospel message, came to know the
grand mystery of the Incarnation of the Word and the
redemption of man, at once the life of Jesus Christ, God and
Man, pervaded every race and nation, and interpenetrated
them with His faith. His precepts and His laws. And if
society is to be healed now, in no other way can it be healed
save by a return to Christian fife and Christian institutions.
When a society is perishing, the wholesome advice to give
to those who would restore it is to recall it to the principles
from which it sprang; for the purpose and perfection of an
association is to aim at and to attain that for which it
was formed; and its efforts should be put in motion and
inspired by the end and object which originally gave it
being. Hence to fall away from its primal constitution
implies disease; to go back to it, recovery. And this may
be asserted with utmost truth both of the State in general
and of that body of its citizens — by far the great majority —
who sustain life by their labor.

Neither must it be supposed that the solicitude of the
Church is so preoccupied with the spiritual concerns of
her children as to neglect their temporal and earthly
interests. Her desire is that the poor, for example, should
rise above poverty and wretchedness, and better their
condition in hfe ; and for this she makes a strong endeavor.
By the very fact that she calls men to virtue and fonns

226 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

them to its practice, she promotes this in no slight degree.
Christian moraUty, when adequately and completely
practised, leads of itself to temporal prosperity, for it
merits the blessing of that God who is the source of all
blessings; it powerfully restrains the greed of possession
and the thirst for pleasure — twin plagues, which too often
make a man who is void of self-restraint miserable in the
midst of abundance;* it makes men supply for the lack
of means through economy, teaching them to be content
with frugal Uving, and further, keeping them out of the
reach of those vices which devour not small incomes merely,
but large fortunes, and dissipate many a goodly inheritance.

The Church, moreover, intervenes directly in behalf of
the poor by setting on foo tand maintaining many asso-
ciations which she knows to be efficient for the relief of
poverty. Herein again she has always succeeded so
well as to have even extorted the praise of her enemies.
Such was the ardor of brotherly love among the earliest
Christians that numbers of those who were in better cir-
cumstances despoiled themselves of their possessions in
order to relieve their brethren; whence neither was there any
one needy among them. ' To the order of Deacons, insti-
tuted in that very intent, was committed by the apostles
the charge of the daily doles ; and the Apostle Paul, though
burdened with the solicitude of all the churches, hesitated
not to undertake laborious journeys in order to carry the
alms of the faithful to the poorer Christians. TertuUian
calls these contributions, given voluntarily by Christians in
their assemblies, deposits of piety; because, to cite his own
words, they were employed "in feeding the needy, in
burying them, in the support of youths and maidens
destitute of means and deprived of their parents, in the
care of the aged, and the relief of the shipwrecked." '

Thus by degrees came into existence the patrimony

» The desire of money is the root of all evils. — 1 Tim. vi. 10.

» Acts iv. 34.

•Apologia Secunda, xxxix

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 227

which the Church has guarded with religious care as the
inheritance of the poor. Nay, to spare them the shame of
begging, the common mother of rich and poor has exerted
herself to gather together funds for the support of the
needy. The Church has aroused everywhere the heroism
of charity, and has estabUshed congregations of rehgious
and many other useful institutions for help and mercy, so
that hardly any kind of suffering could exist which was not
afforded reUef. At the present day many there are who,
like the heathen of old, seek to blame and condemn the
Church for such eminent charity. They would substitute
in its stead a system of relief organized by the State. But
no human expedients will ever make up for the devotedness
and self-sacrifice of Christian charity. Charity, as a virtue,
pertains to the Church; for virtue it is not, unless it be
drawn from the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ; and whoso-
ever turns his back on the Church cannot be near to Christ.

It cannot, however, be doubted that to attain the pur-
pose we are treating of, not only the Church but all human
agencies must concur. All who are concerned in the
matter should be of one mind and according to their
ability act together. It is with this, as with the Providence
that governs the world: the results of causes do not usually
take place save where all the causes co-operate.

It is sufficient, therefore, to inquire what part the State
should play in the work of remedy and relief.

By the State we here understand, not the particular form
of government prevaihng in this or that nation, but the
State as rightly apprehended; that is to say, any govern-
ment conformable in its institutions to right reason and
natural law, and to those dictates of the divine wisdom
which we have expounded in the Encyclic a on "The
Christian Constitution of the State." The foremost duty,
therefore, of the rulers of the State should be to make sure
that the laws and institutions, the general character and
administration of the commonwealth, shall be such as of
themselves to realize public well-being and private pros-

228 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

perity. This is the proper scope of wise statesmanship
and is the work of the heads of the State. Now, a State
chiefly prospers and thrives through moral rule, well-
regulated family life, respect for reUgion and justice, the
moderation and equal allocation of pubUc taxes, the prog-
ress of the arts and of trade, the abundant yield of the
land — through everything, in fact, which makes the citi-
zens better and happier. Hereby, then, it Hes in the power
of a ruler to benefit every class in the State, and amongst
the rest to promote to the utmost the interests of the poor;
and this in virtue of his office, and without being open to
any suspicion of undue interference — since it is the prov-
ince of the State to consult the common good. And
the more that is done for the benefit of the working classes
by the general laws of the country, the less need will there
be to seek for special means to reheve them.

There is another and deeper consideration which must
not be lost sight of. As regards the State, the interests
of all, whether high or low, are equal. The poor are
members of the national community equally with the
rich; they are real component living members which
constitute, through the family, the hving body; and it
need hardly be said that they are in every State very largely
in the majority. It would be irrational to neglect one por-
tion of the citizens and favor another; and, therefore, the
public administration must duly and soHcitously provide
for the welfare and the comfort of the working classes;
otherwise that law of justice will be violated which ordains
that each man shall have his due. To cite the wise words
of St. Thomas of Aquin: "As the part and the whole
are in a certain sense identical, the part may in some
sense claim what belongs to the whole." ^ Among the
many and grave duties of rulers who would do their best for
the people, the first and chief is to act with strict justice —
with that justice which is called by the schoolmen distrib-
utive— towards each and every class alike.
» 2a 2ae Q. Ixi. Art. 1 ad 2.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 229

But although all citizens, without exception, can and
ought to contribute to that common good in which indi-
viduals share so advantageously to themselves, yet it
should not be supposed that all can contribute in the hke
way and to the same extent. No matter what changes
may occur in forms of government, there will ever be
differences and inequalities of condition in the State.
Society cannot exist or be conceived of without them.
Some there must be who devote themselves to the work
of the commonwealth, who make the laws or administer
justice, or whose advice and authority govern the nation
in times of peace and defend it in war. Such men clearly
occupy the foremost place in the State, and should be
held in highest estimation, for their work concerns most
nearly and effectively the general interests of the com-
munity. Those who labor at a trade or calling do not
promote the general welfare in such measure as this; but
they benefit the nation, if less directly, in a most impor-
tant manner. Still we have insisted that, since the end
of society is to make men better, the chief good that
society can possess is virtue. Nevertheless, in all well-
constituted States it is in no wise a matter of small moment
to provide those bodily and external commodities the
use of which is necessary to virtuous action. ^ And in order
to provide such material well-being, the labor of the poor —
the exercise of their skill, and the employment of their
strength, in the culture of the land and in the workshops
of trade — ^is of great account and quite indispensable.
Indeed, their co-operation is in this respect so important
that it may be truly said that it is only by the labor of
workingmen that States grow rich. Justice, therefore,
demands that the interests of the poorer classes should be
carefully watched over by the administration, so that
they who contribute so largely to the advantage of the
community may themselves share in the benefits which

^ St. Thomas of Aquin, De Regimine Principum, i. 15.

230 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

they create — that being housed, clothed, and enabled
to sustain life, they may find their existence less hard
and more endurable. It follows that whatever shall
appear to prove conducive to the well-being of those who
work should obtain favorable consideration. Let it
not be feared that solicitude of this kind will be harmful
to any interest; on the contrary, it will be to the advan-
tage of all; for it cannot but be good for the commonwealth
to shield from misery those on whom it so largely depends.

We have said that the State must not absorb the indi-
vidual or the family; both should be allowed free and
untrammelled action so far as is consistent with the com-
mon good and the interests of others. Rulers should,
nevertheless, anxiously safeguard the community and all
its members: the community, because the conservation
thereof is so emphatically the business of the supreme
power that the safety of the conunonwealth is not only
the first law, but it is a government's whole reason of
existence; and the members, because both philosophy
and the Gospel concur in laying down that the object of
the government of the State should be, not the advantage
of the ruler, but the benefit of those over whom he is
placed. The gift of authority derives from God, and is,
as it were, a participation in the highest of all sovereignties ;
and should be exercised as the power of God is exercised —
with a fatherly solicitude which not only guides the whole
but reaches also to details.

Whenever the general interest or any particular class
suffers, or is threatened with mischief which can in no
other way be met or prevented, the public authority must
step in to deal with it. Now, it interests the public, as
well as the individual, that peace and good order should
be maintained; that family life should be carried on in
accordance with God's laws and those of nature; that
religion should be reverenced and obeyed; that a high
standard of morality should prevail, both in public and
private life ; that the sanctity of justice should be respected,

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 231

and that no one should injure another with impunity;
that the members of the commonwealth should grow up
to man's estate strong and robust, and capable, if need
be, of guarding and defending their country. If by a
strike, or other combination of workmen, there should
be imminent danger of disturbance to the public peace;
or if circumstances were such as that among the laboring
population the ties of family Ufe were relaxed; if rehgion
were found to suffer through the operatives not having
time and opportunity afforded them to practise its duties;
if in workshops and factories there were danger to morals
through the mixing of the sexes or from other harmful
occasions of evil; or if employers laid burdens upon their
workmen which were unjust, or degraded them with
conditions repugnant to their dignity as human beings;
finally, if health were endangered by excessive labor, or
by work unsuited to sex or age — in such cases, there can
be no question but that, within certain hmits, it would
be right to invoke the aid and authority of the law. The
limits must be determined by the nature of the occasion
which calls for the law's interference — the principle being
that the law must not undertake more, nor proceed further,
than is required for the remedy of the evil or the removal
of the mischief.

Rights must be religiously respected wherever they
exist; and it is the duty of the public authority to pre-
vent and to punish injury, and to protect every one in
the possession of his own. Still, when there is a question
of defending the rights of individuals, the poor and help-
less have a claim to especial consideration. The richer
class have many ways of shielding themselves, and stand
less in need of help from the State ; whereas those who are
badly off have no resources of their owti to fall back upon,
and must chiefly depend upon the assistance of the State.
And it is for this reason that wage-earners, who are un-
doubtedly among the weak and necessitous, fehould b«
specially cared for and protected by the Government.

232 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

Here, however, it is expedient to bring under special
notice certain matters of moment. It should ever be
borne in mind that the chief thing to be realized is the
safeguarding of private property by legal enactment and
public poUcy. Most of all it is essential, amid such a
fever of excitement, to keep the multitude within the
hne of duty; for if aU may justly strive to better their
condition, neither justice nor the common good allows any
individual to seize upon that which belongs to another,
or, under the futile aiid shallow pretext of equality,
to lay violent hands on other people's possessions. Most
true it is that by far the larger part of the workers prefer
to better themselves by honest labor rather than b}'^ doing
any -wTong to others. But there are not a few who are
imbued with evil principles and eager for revolutionary
change, whose main purpose is to stir up tumult and
bring about measures of violence. The authority of the
State should intervene to put restraint upon such fire-
brands, to save the working classes from their seditious
arts, and protect lawful owners from spoliation.

When working men have recourse to a strike, it is fre-
quently because the hours of labor are too long, or the
work too hard, or because they consider their wages
insufficient. The gra e inconvenience of this not un-
common occurrence should be obviated by public reme-
dial measures; for such paralyzing of labor not only
affects the masters and their work-people alike, but is
extremely injurious to trade and to the general interests
of the public; moreover, on such occasions, violence and
disorder are generally not far distant, and thus it fre-
quently happens that the pubhc peace is imperilled. The
laws should forestall and prevent such troubles from
arising; they should lend their influence and authority to
the removal in good time of the causes which lead to con-
flicts between employers and employed.

But if owners of property should be made secure, the
workingman, in like manner, has property and belongings

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 233

in respect to which he should be protected; and foremost
of all, his soul and mind. Life on earth, however good
and desirable in itself, is not the final purpose for which
man is created; it is only the way and the means to that
attainment of truth and that practice of goodness in
which the full life of the soul consists. It is the soul
which is made after the image and likeness of God; it is
in the soul that the sovereignty resides in virtue whereof
man is commanded to rule the creatures below him and
to use all the earth and the ocean for his profit and advan-
tage. Fill the earth and subdue it; and rule over the fishes
of the sea, and the fowls cf the air, and all living creatures
which move upon the earth} In this respect all men are
equal; there is no difference between rich and poor,
master and servant, ruler and ruled, for the same is Lord
over all} No man may with impunity outrage that
human dignity which God Himself treats vrith reverence,
nor stand in the way of that higher Hf e which is the prepa-
ration for the eternal life of heaven. Nay, more: no man
has in this matter power over himself. To consent to any
treatment which is calculated to defeat the end and
purpose of his being is beyond his right; he cannot give
up his soul to servitude ; for it is not man's own rights
which are here in question, but the rights of God, the
most sacred and inviolable of rights.

From this follows the obligation of the cessation from
work and labor on Sundays and certain holy days. The
rest from labor is not to be understood as mere giving
way to idleness; much less must it be an occasion for
spending money and for vicious indulgence, as many
would have it to be; but it should be rest from labor,
hallowed by religion. Rest (combined with religious ob-
servances), disposes man to forget for a while the business of
his every-day life, to turn his thoughts to things heavenly,
and to the worship which he so strictly owes to the Eter-

» Genesis i. 28. * Rom. x. 12.

234 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

nal Godhead, It is this, above all, which is the reason and
motive of Sunday rest; a rest sanctioned by God's great
law of the ancient covenant — Remember thou keep holy
the Sahhath day,^ and taught to the world by His own
mysterious "rest" after the creation of man: He rested
on the seventh day from all His work which He had done}

If we turn now to things external and corporeal, the
first concern of all is to save the poor workers from the
cruelty of greedy speculators, who use human beings a»
mere instnmients of money-making. It is neither just
nor human so to grind men down with excessive labor as
to stupefy their minds and wear out their bodies, Man's
powers, hke his general nature, are limited, and beyond
these limits he cannot go. His strength is developed and
increased by use and exercise, but only on condition of
due intermission and proper rest. Daily labor, therefore,
should be so regulated as not to be protracted over longer
hours than strength admits. How many and how long
the intervals of rest should be must depend on the nature
of the work, on circumstances of time and place, and on
the health and strength of the workmen. Those who
work in mines and quarries, and extract coal, stone, and
metals from the bowels of the earth, should have shorter
hours in proportion as their labor is more severe and trying
to health. Then, again, the season of the year should be
taken into account; for not infrequently a kind of labor
is easy at one time which at another is intolerable or
exceedingly difficult. Finally, work which is quite suitable
for a strong man cannot reasonably be required from a
woman or a child. And, in regard to children, great care
should be taken not to place them in workshops and fac-
tories until their bodies and minds are sufficiently de-
veloped. For just as very rough weather destroys the
buds of spring, so does too early an experience of life*«
hard toil blight the young promise of a child's faculties,

' Exod. XX. 8. ' G«nesi8 ii. 2.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 235

and render any true education impossible. Women,
again, are not suited for certain occupations; a woman
is by nature fitted for home work, and it is that which is
best adapted at once to preserve her modesty and to
promote the good bringing up of children and the well-
being of the family. As a general principle it may be
laid down that a workman ought to have leisure and rest
proportionate to the wear and tear of his strength; for
waste of strength must be repaired by cessation from
hard work.

In all agreements between masters and work-people
there is always the condition, expressed or understood,
that there should be allowed proper rest for soul and body.
To agree in any other sense would be against what is
right and just; for it can never be just or right to require
on the one side, or to promise on the other, the giving
up of those duties which a man owes to his God and to
himself.

We now approach a subject of great and urgent im-
portance, and one in respect of which, if extremes are to
be avoided, right notions are absolutely necessary. Wages,
as we are told, are regulated by free consent, and there-
fore the employer, when he pays what was agreed upon,
has done his part and seemingly is not called upon to do
anything beyond. The only way, it is said, in which in-
justice might occur would be if the master refused to pay
the whole of the wages, or if the workman should not
complete the work undertaken; in such cases the State
should intervene, to see that each obtains his due — but
not under any other circumstances.

This mode of reasoning is, to a fair-minded man, by
no means convincing, for there are important considera-
tions which it leaves out of account altogether. To labor
is to exert one's self for the sake of procuring what is neces-
sary for the purposes of life, and chief of all for self-preser-
vation. In the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread}
^ Genesis iii. 19.

236 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

Hence a man's labor bears two notes or characters. First
of all, it is personal, inasmuch as the exertion of individual
strength belongs to the individual who puts it forth,
employing such strength to procure that personal ad-
vantage on account of which it was bestowed. Secondly,
man's labor is necessary; for without the result of labor
a man cannot live; and self-preservation is a law of nature,
which it is wrong to disobey. Now, were we to consider
labor so far as it is personal merely, doubtless it would
be within the workman's right to accept any rate of wages
whatsoever; for in the same way as he is free to work or
not, so is he free to accept a small remuneration or even
none at all. But this is a mere abstract supposition;
the labor of the workingman is not only his personal at-
tribute, but it is necessary; and this makes all the dif-
ference. The preservation of hfe is the boimden duty of
one and all, and to be wanting therein is a crime. It
follows that each one has a right to procure what is re-
quired in order to live; and the poor can procure it in
no other way than through work and wages.

Let it be then taken for granted that workman and
employer should, as a rule, make free agreements, and in
particular should agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless,
there underhes a dictate of natural justice more imperious
and ancient than any bargain between man and man,
namely, that remuneration ought to be sufficient to sup-
port a frugal and well-behaved wage-earner. If through
necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept
harder conditions because an employer or contractor will
afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and
injustice. In these and similar questions, however — such
as, for example, the hours of labor in different trades,
the sanitary precautions to be observed in factories and
workshops, etc. — in order to supersede undue interference
on the part of the State, especially as circumstances, times,
and locahties differ so widely, it is advisable that recourse
be had to societies or boards such as We shall mention

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 237

presently, or to some other mode of safeguarding the
interests of the wage-earners ; the State being appealed to,
should circumstances require, for its sanction and pro-
tection.

If a workman's wages be sufficient to enable him to
maintain himself, his wife, and his children in reasonable
comfort, he will not find it difficult, if he be a sensible
man, to study economy; and he will not fail, by cutting
down expenses, to put by some Httle savings and
thus secure a small income. Nature and reason ahke
would urge him to this. We have seen that this great
labor question cannot be solved save by assuming as a
principle that private ownership must be held sacred
and inviolable. The law, therefore, should favor owner-
ship, and its policy should be to induce as many as possible
of the humbler class to become owners.

Many excellent results will follow from this; and first
of all, property will certainly become more equitably
divided. For the result of civil change and revolution
has been to divide society into two widely differing castes.
On the one side there is the party which holds power
because it holds wealth; which has in its grasp the whole
of labor and trade; which manipulates for its own benefit
and its own purposes all the sources of supply, and which
is even represented in the councils of the State itself.
On the other side there is the needy and powerless multi-
tude, broken down and suffering, and ever ready for dis-
turbance. If working-people can be encouraged to look
forward to obtaining a share in the land, the consequence
will be that the gulf between vast wealth and sheer poverty
will be bridged over, and the respective classes will be
brought nearer to one another. A further consequence
will result in the greater abundance of the fruits of the
earth. Men always work harder and more readily when
they work on that which belongs to them ; nay, they learn
to love the very soil that yields, in response to the labor
of their hands, not only food to eat but an abundance

238 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

of good things for themselves and those that are dear to
them. That such a spirit of willing labor would add to
the produce of the earth and to the wealth of the com-
munity is self-evident. And a third advantage would
spring from this : men would cling to the country in which
they were born; for no one would exchange his countrj'
for a foreign land if his own afforded him the means of
living a decent and happy life. These three important
benefits, however, can be reckoned on only provided that
a man's means be not drained and exhausted by excessive
taxation. The right to possess private property is derived
from nature, not from man; and the State has the right
to control its use in the interests of the public good alone,
but by no means to absorb it altogether. The State
would therefore be unjust and cruel if under the name
of taxation it were to deprive the private owner of more
than is fitting.

In the last place — employers and workmen may of
themselves effect much in the matter we are treating,
by means of such associations and organizations as afford
opportune aid to those who are in distress, and which
draw the two classes more closety together. Among these
may be enumerated societies for mutual help; various
benevolent foundations established by private persons to
provide for the workman, and for his wddow or his or-
phans, in case of sudden calamity, in sickness, and in
the event of death ; and what are called " patronages,"
or institutions for the care of boys and girls, for young
people, as well as homes for the aged.

The most important of all are workingmen's unions;
for these virtually include all the rest. History attests
what excellent results were brought about by the artificers'
guilds of olden times. They were the means of affording
not only many advantages to the workmen, but in no small
degree of promoting the advancement of art, as numerous
monuments remain to bear witness. Such unions should
be suited to the requirements of this our a^e — an age of

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 239

wider education, of different habits, and of far more
numerous requirements in daily life. It is gratifying to
know that there are actually in existence not a few associa-
tions of this nature, consisting either of workmen alone, or
of workmen and employers together; but it were greatly to
be desired that they should become more numerous and
more efficient. We have spoken of them more than once ;
yet it will be well to explain here how notably they are
needed, to show that they exist of their own right, and
what should be their organization and their mode of action.

The consciousness of his own weakness urges man to
call in aid from without. We read in the pages of holy )
writ: It is better that two should be together than one; for
they have the advantage of their society. If one fall he shall
be supported by the other. Woe to him that is alone, for
when he falleth he hath none to lift him up} And further:
A brother that is helped by his brother is like a strong dty.^
It is this natural impulse which binds men together in
civil society; and it is likewise this which leads them to
join together in associations of citizen with citizen; as-
sociations which, it is true, cannot be called societies
in the full sense of the word, but which, notwithstanding,
are societies.

These lesser societies and the society which constitutes
the State differ in many respects, because their immediate
purpose and aim is different. Civil society exists for
the common good, and hence is concerned with the in-
terests of all in general, albeit with individual interests
also in their due place and degree. It is therefore called
public society, because by its agency, as St. Thomas
of Aquin says, "Men establish relations in common with
one another in the setting up of a commonwealth." ' But
societies which are formed in the bosom of the State are
styled private, and rightly so, since their immediate purpose

' Ecclesiastes iv. 9, 10.

* Prov. xviii. 19.

* Contra impugnantes Dei cultuna et religionem, ii

240 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

is the private advantage of the associates. "Now a private
society," says St. Thomas again, "is one which is formed
for the purpose of carrying out private objects; as when
two or three enter into partnership with the view of trad-
ing in common." ^ Private societies, then, although they
exist within the State, and are severally part of the State,
cannot nevertheless be absolutely, and as such, pro-
hibited by the State. For to enter into a "society" of
this kind is the natural right of man; and the State is
bound to protect natural rights, not to destroy them;
and if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it con-
tradicts the very principle of its own existence; for both
they and it exist in virtue of the like principle, namely,
the natural tendency of man to dwell in society.

There are occasions, doubtless, when it is fitting that the
law should intervene to prevent association; as when men
join together for purposes which are evidently bad, unlaw-
ful, or dangerous to the State. In such cases public
authority may justly forbid the formation of associa-
tions, and may dissolve them if they already exist. But
every precaution should be taken not to violate the rights
of individuals and not to impose unreasonable regulations
under pretence of public benefit. For laws only bind
when they are in accordance with right reason, and hence
with the eternal law of God.^

And here we are reminded of the confraternities, so-
cieties, and religious orders which have aiisen by the
Church's authority and the piety of Christian men. The
annals of every nation down to our own days bear witness
to what they have accomplished for the human race.
It is indisputable that on grounds of reason alone such

* Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem, ii.

' * ' Hmnan law is law only by virtue of its accordance with right
reason; and thus it is manifest that it flows from the eternal law.
And in so far as it deviates from right reason it is called an imjust
law; in such case it is no law at all, but rather a species of violence."
— St. Thomas of Aquin, Summa Theologica, la 2bb Q. xciii. art. 3.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 241

associations, being perfectly blameless in their objects,
possess the sanction of the law of nature. In their re-
ligious aspect, they claim rightly to be responsible to
the Church alone. The rulers of the State accordingly
have no rights over them, nor can they claim any share
in their control; on the contrary, it is the duty of the
State to respect and cherish them, and, if need be, to
defend them from attack. It is notorious that a very
different course has been followed, more especially in
our own times. In many places the State authorities
have laid violent hands on these communities, and com-
mitted manifold injustice against them; it has placed
them under control of the civil law, taken away their
rights as corporate bodies, and despoiled them of their
property. In such property the Church had her rights,
each member of the body had his or her rights, and there
were also the rights of those who had founded or endowed
these communities for a definite purpose, and, further-
more, of those for whose benefit and assistance they
had their being. Therefore We cannot refrain from com-
plaining of such spoliation as unjust and fraught with evil
results; and with all the more reason do We complain
because, at the very time when the law proclaims that
association is free to all, We see that Catholic societies,
however peaceful and useful, are hampered in every way,
whereas the utmost hberty is conceded to individuals
whose purposes are at once hurtful to religion and dan-
gerous to the State.

Associations of every kind, and especially those of
workingmen, are now far more common than heretofore.
As regards many of these there is no need at present to
inquire whence they spring, what are their objects, or
what the means they employ. There is a good deal of
evidence, however, which goes to prove that many of these
societies are in the hands of secret leaders, and are man-
aged on principles ill-according with Christianity and
the public well-being; and that they do their utmost to

242 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES

i get within their grasp the whole field of labor, and force
\ workingmen either to join them or to starve. Under these
circumstances Christian workingmen must do one of two
things: either join associations in which their religion will
be exposed to peril, or form associations among them-
selves— unite their forces and shake off courageously the
yoke of so unrighteous and intolerable an oppression.
No one who does not wish to expose man's chief good
to extreme risk will for a moment hesitate to say that
the second alternative should by all means be adopted.
Those Catholics are worthy of all praise — and they are
not a few — who, understanding what the times require,
have striven, by various undertakings and endeavors, to
better the condition of the working class without any
sacrifice of principle being involved. They have taken
up the cause of the workingman, and have spared no
efforts to better the condition both of families and indi-
viduals; to infuse a spirit of equity into the mutual rela-
tions of employers and employed; to keep before the eyes
of both classes the precepts of duty and the laws of the
Gospel — that Gospel which, by inculcating self-restraint,
keeps men within the bounds of moderation, and tends to
estabhsh harmony among the divergent interests, and the
various classes which compose the State. It is with such
ends in view that we see men of eminence meeting together
for discussion, for the promotion of concerted action, and
for practical work. Others, again, strive to unite working-
men of various grades into associations, help them with
their advice and means, and enable them to obtain fitting
and profitable employment. The bishops, on their part,
bestow their ready good-will and support; and with their
approval and guidance many members of the clergy, both
^ secular and regular, labor assiduously in behalf of the
spiritual and mental interests of the members of such
associations. And there are not wanting Catholics blessed
with affluence, who have, as it were, cast in their lot with
the wage-earners, and who have spent large sums in

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 243

founding and widely spreading benefit and insurance
societies, by means of which the workingman may without
difficulty acquire, through his labor, not only many present
advantages but also the certainty of honorable support
in days to come. How greatly such manifold and earnest
activity has benefited the community at large is too well
known to require Us to dwell upon it. We find therein
grounds for most cheering hope in the future, provided
always that the associations We have described continue
to grow and spread, and are well and wisely administered.
Let the State watch over these societies of citizens banded
together for the exercise of their rights; but let it not
thrust itself into their peculiar concerns and their organ-
ization; for things move and live by the spirit inspiring
them, and may be killed by the rough grasp of a hand
from without.

In order, then, that an association may be carried on
with unity of purpose and harmony of action, its organiza-
tion and government should be firm and wise. All such
societies, being free to exist, have the further right to
adopt such rules and organization as may best conduce
to the attainment of their respective objects. We do
not judge it expedient to enter into minute particulars
touching the subject of organization : this must depend on
national character, on practice and experience, on the
nature and aim of the work to be done, on the scope of
the various trades and employments, and on other cir-
cumstances of fact and of time: — all of which should be
carefully considered.

To sum up, then, We may lay it down as a general
and lasting law, that workingmen's associations should
be so organized and governed as to furnish the best and
most suitable means for attaining what is aimed at; that
is to say, for helping each individual member to better
his condition to the utmost in body, mind, and property.
It is clear that they must pay special and chief attention
to the duties of religion and morality, and that their

244 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

internal discipline must be guided very strictly by these
weighty considerations; otherwise they would lose wholly
their special character, and end by becoming little better
than those societies which take no account whatever of
rehgion. What advantage can it be to a workingman
to obtain by means of a society all that he requires, and
to endanger his soul for lack of spiritual food? 'What doth
it profit a man if he gain the whole world and suffer the loss of
his own soul 9 ^ This, as Our Lord teaches, is the mark or
character that distinguishes the Christian from the heathen.
After all these things do the heathens seek. . . . Seek ye first
the kingdom of God and His justice, and all these things shall
be added unto you? Let our associations, then, look first
and before all things to God; let rehgious instruction
have therein the foremost place, each one being carefully
taught what is his duty to God, what he has to believe,
what to hope for, and how he is to work out his salvation ;
and let all be warned and strengthened with special care
against wrong principles and false teaching. Let the
workingman be urged and led to the worship of God, to
the earnest practice of religion, and, among other things,
to the keeping holy of Sundays and holydays. Let him
learn to reverence and love Holy Church, the common
Mother of us all; and hence to obey the precepts of the
Church, and to frequent the sacraments, since they are the
means ordained by God for obtaining forgiveness of sin
and for leading a holy Ufe,

The foundations of the organization being thus laid in
religion, We next proceed to make clear the relations of
the members one to another, in order that they may live
together in concord and go forward prosperously and
with good results. The offices and charges of the society
should be apportioned for the good of the society itself,
and in such mode that difference in degree or standing
should not interfere with unanimity and good-will. Office-
Matt, xvi. 26. 'Matt. vi. 32, 33.

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 245

bearers should be appointed with due prudence and dis-
cretion, and each one's charge should be carefully mapped
out. Hereby no member will suffer injury. Let the com-
mon funds be administered with strict honesty, in such
a way that a member may receive assistance in proportion
to his necessities. The rights and duties of the employers,
as compared with the rights and duties of the employed,
ought to be the subject of careful consideration. Should
it happen that either a master or a workman believe him-
self injured, nothing would be more desirable than that a
committee should be appointed composed of reliable and
capable members of the association, whose duty would be,
conformably with the rules of the association, to settle
the dispute. Among the several purposes of a society
one should be to try to arrange for a continuous supply
of work at all times and seasons, as well as to create a
fund out of which the members may be effectually helped
in their needs, not only in cases of accident but also in
sickness, old age, and distress.

Such rules and regulations, if willingly obeyed by all,
will sufficiently ensure the well-being of the poor; whilst
such mutual associations among Catholics are certain to
be productive in no small degree of prosperity to the State.
It is not rash to conjecture the future from the past. Age
gives way to age, but the events of one century are wonder-
fully like those of another; for they are directed by the
providence of God, who overrules the course of history
in accordance with His purposes in creating the race of
man. We are told that it was cast as a reproach on the
Christians in the early ages of the Church that the greater
number among them had to live by begging or by labor.
Yet, destitute though they were of wealth and influence,
they ended by winning over to their side the favor of the
rich and the good-will of the powerful. They showed them-
selves industrious, hard-working, assiduous, and peaceful,
ruled by justice, and, above all, bound together in brotherly
love. In presence of such mode of life and such example^

1/-

246 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

prejudice gave way, the tongue of malevolence was silenced,
and the lying legends of ancient superstition little by
little yielded to Christian truth.

At the time being, the condition of the working classes
is the pressing question of the hour; and nothing can be
of higher interest to all classes of the State than that it
should be rightly and reasonably adjusted. But it will
be easy for Christian workingmen to decide it aright
if they will form associations, choose vnse guides, and
follow on the path which with so much advantage to
themselves and the commonweal was trodden by their
fathers before them. Prejudice, it is true, is mighty,
and so is the greed of money; but if the sense of what
is just and rightful be not debased through depravity
of heart, their fellow-citizens are sure to be won over to
a kindly feeling towards men whom they see to be in
earnest as regards their work and who prefer so unmis-
takably right deaUng to mere lucre, and the sacredness
of duty to every other consideration.

And further great advantage would result from the
state of things We are describing; there would exist so
much more ground for hope, and likelihood even, of re-
calling to a sense of their duty those workingmen who
have either given up their faith altogether, or whose lives
are at variance with its precepts. Such men feel in most
cases that they have been fooled by empty promises and
deceived by false pretexts. They cannot but perceive
that their grasping employers too often treat them with
great inhumanity and hardly care for them outside the
profit their labor brings; and if they belong to any vmion,
it is probably one in which there exists, instead of charity
and love, that intestine strife which ever accompanies
poverty when unresigned and unsustained by religion.
Broken in spirit and worn down in body, how many of
them would gladly free themselves from such galling
bondage! But human respect, or the dread of starvation,
makes them tremble to take the step. To such as these

CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. 247

Catholic associations are of incalculable service, by help-
ing them out of their difficulties, inviting them to com-
panionship, and receiving the returning wanderers to a
haven where they may securely find repose.

We have now laid before you, Venerable Brethren,
both who are the persons and what are the means where-
by this most arduous question must be solved. Every
one should put his hand to the work which falls to his
share, and that at once and straightway, lest the evil which
is already so great become through delay absolutely beyond
remedy. Those who rule the State should avail them
of the laws and institutions of the country; masters and
wealthy owners must be mindful of their duty; the poor,
whose interests are at stake, should make every lawful
and proper effort; and since religion alone, as We said
at the beginning, can avail to destroy the evil at its root,
all men should rest persuaded that the main thing need-
ful is to return to real Christianity, apart from which all
the plans and devices of the wisest will prove of little
avail.

In regard to the Church, her co-operation will never be
found lacking, be the time or the occasion what it may; and
she will intervene with all the greater effect in proportion
as her liberty of action is the more unfettered. Let this be
carefully taken to heart by those whose office it is to safe-
guard the pubHc welfare. Every minister of holy religion
must bring to the struggle the full energy of his mind and
all his power of endurance. Moved by your authority^
Venerable Brethren, and quickened by your example, they
should never cease to urge upon men of every class, upon
the high-placed as well as the lowly, the Gospel doctrines of
Christian life; by every means in their power they must
strive to secure the good of the people; and above all must
earnestly cherish in themselves, and try to arouse in others,
charity, the mistress and the queen of virtues. For tha
happy results we all long for must be chiefly brought about
by the plenteous outpouring of charity; of that true Chris-

248 CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

tian charity which is the fulfilling of the whole Gospel
law, which is always ready to sacrifice itself for others' sake,
and is man's surest antidote against worldly pride and im-
moderate love of self; that charity whose ofl&ce is described
and whose Godhke features are outhned by the Apostle
St. Paul in these words: Charity is patient, is kind, . . .
seeketh not her own, .... suffereth all things, . . . endureth
all things. ^

On each one of you, Venerable Brothers, and on your
clergy and people, as an earnest of God's mercy and a mark
of Our affection. We, lovingly in the Lord, bestow the
Apostolic Benediction.

1 1 Cor. ziiL 4-7.

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

Encyclical Letter Au Milieu des Sollicitudes, February 16,

1892.

To THE Bishops and Faithful of France:

Amid the cares of the universal Church We have many
times, in the course of Our Pontificate, been pleased to
testify Our affection for France and her noble people,
and in one of Our Encyclicals, still within the memory of
all, We endeavored solemnly to express the innermost
feelings of Our soul on this subject. It is precisely this
affection that has caused Us to watch with deep interest
and then to revolve in Our mind the succession of events,
sometimes sad, sometimes consoling, which, of late years,
has taken place in your midst.

Again, at present, when contemplating the depths of
the vast conspiracy that certain men have formed for
the annihilation of Christianity in France and the animosity
with which they pursue the realization of their design,
trampling under foot the most elementary notions of
liberty and justice for the sentiment of the greater part
of the nation, and of respect for the inalienable rights of
the Catholic Church, how can We but be stricken with
deepest grief? And when We behold, one after another,
the dire consequences of these sinful attacks which con-
spire to ruin morals, religion, and even political interests,
wisely understood, how express the bitterness that over-
whelms Us and the apprehensions that beset Us?

On the other hand, We feel greatly consoled when We
see this same French people increasing its zeal and af-
fection for the Holy See in proportion as that See is

249

250 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

abandoned — We should rather say warred with upon
earth. Moved by deeply religious and patriotic senti-
ments, representatives of all the social classes have re-
peatedly come to Us from France, happy to aid the Church
in her incessant needs and eager to ask Us for light and
counsel, so as to be sure that amid present tribulations
they would in nowise deviate from the teachings of the
Head of the Faithful. And We, in Our turn, either in
writing or by word of mouth, have openly told Our sons
what they had a right to demand of their Father, and, far
from discouraging them, We have strongly exhorted
them to increase their love and efforts in defence of the
Catholic faith and Ukewise of their native land : two duties
of paramount importance, and from which, in this life,
no man can exempt himself.

Now We deem it opportune, nay, even necessary, once
again to raise Our voice entreating still more earnestly, We
shall not say Catholics only, but all upright and intelligent
Frenchmen, utterly to disregard all germs of poUtical
strife in order to devote their efforts solely to the pacifica-
tion of their country. All understand the value of this
pacification; all continue to desire it more and more.
And We who crave it more than any one, since We repre-
sent on earth the God of peace, urge by these present
Letters all righteous souls, all generous hearts, to assist Us
in making it stable and fruitful.

First of all, let us take as a starting-point a well-known
truth admitted by all men of good sense and loudly pro-
claimed by the history of all peoples; namely, that
rehgion, and religion only, can create the social bond;
that it alone maintains the peace of a nation on a solid
foundation. When different families, without giving up
the rights and duties of domestic society, unite under
the inspiration of natm-e, in order to constitute themselves
members of another larger family circle called civil so-
ciety, their object is not only to find therein the means
of providing for their material welfare, but, above all,

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 251

to draw thence the boon of moral improvement. Other-
wise society would rise but little above the level of an
aggregation of beings devoid of reason, and whose whole
life would consist in the satisfaction of sensual instincts.
Moreover, without this moral improvement it would be
difficult to demonstrate that civil society was an advan-
tage rather than a detriment to man, as man./

Now, morality, in man, by the mere fact that it should
establish harmony among so many dissimilar rights and
duties, since it enters as an element into every human
act, necessarily supposes God, and with God, religion,
that sacred bond whose privilege is to unite, anteriorly
to all other bonds, man to God. Indeed, the idea of
morality signifies, above all, an order of dependence in
regard to truth which is the light of the mind ; in regard
to good which is the object of the will; and without
truth and good there is no morality worthy of the name.
And what is the principal and essential truth, that from
which all truth is derived? It is God. What, therefore,
is the supreme good from which all other good proceeds?
God. Finally, who is the creator and guardian of oiu"
reason, our will, our whole being, as well as the end of
our life? God; always God. Since, therefore, religion
is the interior and exterior expression of the dependence
which, in justice, we owe to God, there follows a grave
obligation. AH citizens are bound to unite in maintaining
in the nation true religious sentiment, and to defend it
in case of need, if ever, despite the protestations of nature
and of history, an atheistical school should set about
banishing God from society, thereby surely annihilating
the moral sense even in the depths of the human conscience.
Among men who have not lost all notion of integrity
there can exist no difference of opinion on this point.

In French Catholics the religious sentiment should be
even deeper and more universal because they have the
happiness of belonging to the true religion. If, indeed,
religious beliefs were, always and everywhere, given as

252 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

"a basis of the morality of human actions and the existence
of all well-ordained society, it is evident that the Catholic
religion, by the mere fact that it is the true Church of
Jesus Christ, possesses, more than any other, the efficacy
required for the regulation of life in society and in the
individual. Would you have a brilliant example of this?
France herself furnishes the same. ... In proportion
as France progressed in the Christian faith she was seen
to rise gradually to the moral greatness which she attained
as a political and mihtary power. To the natural gen-
erosity of her heart Christian charity came and added an
abundant source of new energy; her wonderful activity
received still greater impetus from contact with the light
that guides and is the pledge of constancy, the Christian
faith, which, by the hand of France, traced such glorious
pages in the history of mankind. And even to-day does
not her faith continue to add new glories to those of the
past? We behold France, inexhaustible in her genius and
resources, multiplying works of charity at home; we
admire her enterprises in foreign lands where, by means
of her gold and the labors of her missionaries who work
even at the price of their blood, she simultaneously prop-
agates her own renown and the benefits of the Catholic
religion. No Frenchman, whatever his convictions in
other respects, would dare to renounce glory such as this,
for to do so would be to deny his native land.

Now the history of a nation reveals in an incontestable
way the generating and preserving element of its moral
greatness, and should this element ever be missing, neither
a superabundance of gold nor even force of arms could
save it from moral decadence and perhaps death. Who
then but understands that for all Frenchmen professing
the Catholic rehgion the great anxiety should be to insure
its preservation, and that with all the more devotedness
since in their midst the sects are making Christianity
an object of implacable hostility. Therefore, on this
ground, they can afford neither indolence of action nor

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 253

party divisions; the one would bespeak cowardice un-
worthy of a Christian, the other would bring about disas-
trous weakness.

And now, before going any further, We must indicate
a craftily circulated calumny making most odious impu-
tations against Catholics, and even against the Holy See
itself. It is maintained that that vigor of action inculcated
in Catholics for the defence of their faith has for a secret
motive much less the safeguarding of their religious
interests than the ambition of securing to the Church
political domination over the State. Truly this is the
revival of a very ancient calumny, as its invention belongs
to the first enemies of Christianity. Was it not first of
all formulated against the adorable peratm of the Redeemer?
Yes, when He illuminated souls by His preaching and
alleviated the corporal or spiritual sufferings of the unfor-
tunate with the treasures of His divine boimty, he was
accused of having political ends in view. " We have
found this man perverting our nation, and forbidding to
give tribute to Caesar, and saying that he is Christ, the
king. ... If thou release this man, thou are not Csesar's
friend. For whomsoever maketh himself a king, speaketh
against Caesar. . . . We have no king but Caesar."

It was these threatening calumnies which drew from
Pilate the sentence of death against Him whom he had
repeatedly declared innocent. And the authors of these
lies, or of others of equal strength, omitted nothing that
would aid their emissaries in propagating them far and
wide; and thus did St. Justin, martyr, rebuke the Jews
of his time : " Far from repenting when you had learned
of His resurrection from the dead, you sent to Jerusalem
shrewdly chosen men to announce that a heresy and an
impious sect had been started by a certain seducer called
Jesus of Galilee."

In so audaciously defaming Christianity its enemies
know well what they did; their plan was to raise against
its propagation a formidable adversary, the Roman

254 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

Empire. The calumny made headway; and in their
credulity the pagans called the first Christians " useless
creatures, dangerous citizens, factionists, enemies of the
Empire and the Emperors. But in vain did the apologists
of Christianity by their writings, and Christians by their
splendid conduct, endeavor to demonstrate the absurdity
and criminality of these qualifications: they were not
heeded. Their very name was equivalent to a declaration
of war; and Christians, by the mere fact of their being
such, and for no other reason, were forced to choose
between apostasy and martyrdom, being allowed no
alternative. During the following centuries the same
grievances and the same severity prevailed to a greater or
less extent, whenever governments were unreasonably
jealous of their power and maliciously disposed against
the Church. They never failed to call public attention
to the pretended encroachment of the Church upon the
State, in order to furnish the State with some apparent
right to violently attack the Catholic religion.

We have expressly recalled some features of the past
that CathoHcs might not be dismayed by the present.
Substantially the struggle is ever the same: Jesus Christ is
always exposed to the contradictions of the world, and
the same means are always used by modem enemies of
Christianity means old in principle and scarcely modified
in form; but the same means of defence are also clearly
indicated to Christians of the present day by our apolo-
gists, our doctors and our martyrs. What they have done
it is incumbent upon us to do in our turn. Let us there-
fore place above all else the glory of God and of His
Church; let us work for her with an assiduity at once
constant and effective, and leave all care of success to
Jesus Christ, who tells us: "In the world you shall have
distress: but have confidence, I have overcome the world."

To attain this We have already remarked that a great
union is necessary, and if it is to be realized, it is indis-
spensable that all preoccupation capable of diminishing

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 255

Sts strength and efficacy must be abandoned. Here
We intend alluding principally to the political differences
among the French in regard to the actual republic — a
question We would treat with the clearness which the
gravity of the subject demands, beginning with the prin-
ciples and descending thence to practical results.

Various political governments have succeeded one
another in France during the last century, each having
its own distinctive form: the Empire, the Monarchy,
and the Republic. By giving one's self up to abstrac-
tions, one could at length conclude which is the best of
these forms, considered in themselves; and in all truth it
may be affirmed that each of them is good, provided it
lead straight to its end — that is to say, to the common good
for which social authority is constituted; and finally^ it
may be added that, from a relative point of view, such
and such a form of government may be preferable because
of being better adapted to the character and customs of
such or such a nation. In this order of speculative ideas,
Catholics, like all other citizens, are free to prefer one
form of government to another precisely because no one
of these social forms is, in itself, opposed to the principles
of sound reason nor to the maxims of Christian doctrine.
What amply justifies the wisdom of the Church is that in
her relations with political powers she makes abstraction
of the forms which differentiate them and treats with
them concerning the great religious interests of nations,
knowing that hers is the duty to undertake their tutelage
above all other interests. Our preceding EncycHcals have
already exposed these principles, but it was nevertheless
necessary to recall them for the development of the subject
which occupies Us to-day.

In descending from the domain of abstractions to
that of facts, we must beware of denying the principles
just established: they remain fixed. However, becom-
ing incarnated in facts, they are clothed wdth a contin-
gent character, determined by the centre in which their

256 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

application is produced. Otherwise said, if every political
form is good by itself and may be applied to the govern-
ment of nations, the fact still remains that political power
is not found in all nations under the same form ; each has
its own. This form springs from a combination of historical
or national, though always human, circumstances which,
in a nation, give rise to its traditional and even fundamental
laws, and by these is determined the particular form of
government, the basis of transmission of supreme power.

It were useless to recall that all individuals are bound to
accept these governments and not to attempt their over-
throw or a change in their form. Hence it is that the
Church, the guardian of the truest and highest idea of
political sovereignty, since she has derived it from God,
has always condemned men who rebelled against legitimate
authority and disapproved their doctrines. And that too at
the very time when the custodians of power used it against
her, thereby depriving themselves of the strongest sup-
port given their authority and of efficacious means of
obtaining from the people obedience to their laws. And
apropos of this subject. We cannot lay too great stress
upon the precepts given to the first Christians by the
Prince of the apostles in the midst of persecutions: "Honor
all men: love the brotherhood: fear God: honor the king";
and those of St. Paul: "I desire, therefore, first of all, that
supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings
be made for all men: For kings and for all who are in
high station, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life,
in all piety and chastity. For this is good and acceptable
in the sight of God, our Saviour."

However, here it mugt be carefully observed that what-
ever be the form of civil power in a nation, it cannot be
considered so definitive as to have the right to remain
immutable, even though such were the intention of those
who, in the beginning, determined it. ... Only the
Church of Jesus Christ has been able to preserve, and
surely will preserve unto the consummation of time, her

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 257

form of government. Founded by Him who was, who
is, and who urill he forever, she has received from Him,
since her very origin, all that she requires for the pursuing
of her divine mission across the changeable ocean of human
affairs. And, far from wishing to transform her essen-
tial constitution, she has not the power even to relinquish
the conditions of true liberty and sovereign independence
with which Providence has endowed her in the general
interest of souls. . . . But, in regard to purely human
societies, it is an oft-repeated historical fact that time,
that great transformer of all things here below, operates
great changes in their political institutions. On some
occasions it limits itself to modifying something in the
form of the established government; or, again, it will go
so far as to substitute other forms for the primitive ones —
forms totally different, even as regards the mode of trans-
mitting sovereign power.

And how are these political changes of which We speak
produced? They sometimes follow in the wake of violent
crises, too often of a bloody character, in the midst of which
pre-existing governments totally disappear; then anarchy
holds sway, and soon pubHc order is shaken to its very
foundations and finally overthrown. From that time
onward a social need obtrudes itself upon the nation; it
must provide for itself without delay. Is it not its
privilege — or, better still, its duty — to defend itself against
a state of affairs troubling it so deeply, and to re-establish
public peace in the tranquillity of order? Now, this social
need justifies the creation and the existence of new govern-
ments, whatever form they take ; since, in the hypothesis
wherein we reason, these new governments are a requisite
to public order, all pubUc order being impossible without
a government. Thence it follows that, in similar junctures,
all the novelty is limited to the pohtical form of civil
power, or to its mode of transmission ; it in no wise affects
the power considered in itself. This continues to be
immutable and worthy of respect, as, considered in it»

258 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

nature, it is constituted to provide for the common good,,
the supreme end which gives human society its origin^.
To put it otherwise, in all hypotheses, civil power, con-
sidered as such, is from God, always from God: "For
there is no power but from God."

Consequently, when new governments representing thi«
immutable power are constituted, their acceptance is not
only permissible but even obligatory, being imposed by
the need of the social good which has made and which
upholds them. This is all the more imperative because
an insurrection stirs up hatred among citizens, provokes
civil war, and may throw a nation into chaos and anarchy,
and this great duty of respect and dependence Tvill endure
1 as long as the exigencies of the common good shall demand
it, since this good is, after God, the first and last law in
society.

Thus the wisdom of the Church explains itseK in the
maintenance of her relations with the numerous govern-
ments which have succeeded one another in France in
less than a century, each change causing violent shocks.
Such a line of conduct would be the surest and most
salutary for all Frenchmen in their civil relations with
the republic, which is the actual government of their
nation. Far be it from them to encourage the political
dissensions which divide them; all their efforts should
be combined to preserve and elevate the moral greatness
of their native land.

But a difficulty presents itself. "This Republic," it is
said, "is animated by such anti-Christian sentiments
that honest men, Catholics particularly, could not con-
scientiously accept it." This, more than anything else,
has given rise to dissensions, and in fact aggravated
them. . . . These regrettable differences would have been
avoided if the very considerable distinction between con-
stituted power and legislation had been carefully kept in
view. In so much does legislation differ from political
power and its form, that under a system of government

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 259

most excellent in form legislation could be detestable;
while quite the opposite under a regime most imperfect in
form, might be found excellent legislation. It were an
easy task to prove this truth, history in hand, but what
would be the use ? All are convinced of it. And who,
better than the Church, is in position to know it — she
who has striven to maintain habitual relations with all
political governments? Assuredly she, better than any
other power, could tell the consolation or sorrow oc-
casioned her by the laws of the various governments
by which nations have been ruled from the Roman Empire
down to the present.

If the distinction just established has its major im-
portance, it is likewise manifestly reasonable: Legislation
is the work of men invested with power, and who, in fact,
govern the nation; therefore it follows that, practically,
the quality of the laws depends more upon the quality
of these men than upon the form of power. The laws
will be good or bad accordingly as the minds of the legis-
lators are imbued with good or bad principles, and as
they allow themselves to be guided by political prudence
or by passion.

That several years ago different important acts of
legislation in France proceeded from a tendency hostile
to religion, and therefore to the interests of the nation,
is admitted by all, and unfortunately confirmed by the
evidence of facts. We Ourselves, in obedience to a sacred
duty, made earnest appeals to him who was then at the
head of the republic, but these tendencies continued to
exist ; the evil grew, and it was not surprising that the
members of the French Episcopate chosen by the Holy
Ghost to rule over their respective illustrious churches
should even quite recently have considered it an obliga-
tion publicly to express their grief concerning the con-
dition of affairs in France in regard to the Catholic re-
ligion. Poor France! God alone can measure the abyss
of evil into which she will sink if this legislation, instead

260 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

of improving, will stubbornly continue in a course which
must end in plucking from the minds and hearts of French-
men the religion which has made them so great.

And here is precisely the ground on which, pohtical
dissensions aside, upright men should unite as one to
combat, by all lawful and honest means, these progressive
abuses of legislation. The respect due to constituted
power cannot prohibit this: unlimited respect and obedi-
ence cannot be 5delded to all legislative measures, of no
matter what kind, enacted by this same power. Let it
not be forgotten that law is a precept ordained according
to reason and promulgated for the good of the com-
munity by those who, for this end, have been entrusted
with power. . . . Accordingly, such points in legislation
as are hostile to rehgion and to God should never be
approved; to the contrary, it is a duty to disapprove
them. It was this that St. Augustine, the great Bishop
of Hippo, brought out so strongly in his eloquent reason-
ing: "Sometimes the powerful ones of earth are good
and fear God; at other times they fear Him not. Julian
was an emperor unfaithful to God, an apostate, a per-
vert, an idolator. Christian soliders served this faithless
emperor, but as soon as there was question of the cause
of Jesus Christ they recognized only Him who was in
heaven. Julian commanded them to honor idols and
offer them incense, but they put God above the prince.
However, when he made them form into ranks and march
against a hostile nation, they obeyed instantly. They
distinguished the eternal from the temporal master and
still in view of the eternal Master they submitted to
such a temporal master."

We know that, by a lamentable abuse of his reason,
and still more so of his will, the atheist denies these prin-
ciples. But, in a word, atheism is so monstrous an error
that it could never, be it said to the honor of humanity,
annihilate in it the consciousness of God's claims and
substitute them with idolatry of the State.

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 261

The principles which should regulate our conduct
towards God and towards human governments being thus
defined, no unprejudiced man can censure French Catholics
if, sparing themselves neither fatigue nor sacrifice, they
labor to preserve a condition essential to their country's
salvation, one which embodies so many glorious tradi-
tions registered by history, and which every Frenchman
is in duty bound not to forget

Before closing Our Letter, We wish to touch upon two
points bearing an affinity to each other and which, because
so closely connected with religious interests, have stirred
up some division among Catholics. . . . One of them is the
Concordat, which for so many years has facilitated in
France the harmony between the government of the
Church and that of the State. On the observance of
this solemn, bi-lateral compact, always faithfully kept by
the Holy See, the enemies of the Catholic religion do not
themselves agree. . . . The more violent among them
desire its abolition, that the State may be entirely free
to molest the Church of JESUS CHRIST. ... On the
contrary, others, being more astute, wish, or rather claim to
wish, the preservation of the Concordat: not because they
agree that the State should fulfil toward the Church the
subscribed engagements, but solely that the State may be
benefited by the concessions made by the Church; as if
one could, at will, separate engagements entered into
from concessions obtained, when both of these things form
a substantial part of one whole. For them the Concordat
would amount to no more than a chain forged to fetter
the liberty of the Church, that holy liberty to which she
has a divine and inalienable right. Of these two opinions
which will prevail? We know not. We desired to
recall them only to recommend CathoHcs not to provoke
a secession by interfering in a matter with which it is the
business of the Holy See to deal.

We shall not hold to the same language on another
point, concerning the principle of the separation of the

262 ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC.

State and Church, which is equivalent to the separation
of human legislation from Christian and divine legislation.
We do not care to interrupt Ourselves here in order to
demonstrate the absurdity of such a separation; each
one will understand for himself. As soon as the State
refuses to give to God what belongs to God, by a necessary-
consequence it refuses to give to citizens that to which, as
men, they have a right; as, whether agreeable or not to
accept, it cannot be denied that man's rights spring from
his duty toward God. Whence it follows that the State,
by missing in this connection the principal object of its
institution, finally becomes false to itself by denying that
which is the reason of its own existence. These superior
truths are so clearly proclaimed by the voice of even
natural reason, that they force themselves upon all who
are not blinded by the violence of passion; therefore
Catholics cannot be too careful in defending themselves
against such a separation. In fact, to wish that the
State would separate itself from the Church would be to
wish, by a logical sequence, that the Church be reduced
to the liberty of living according to the law common to
all citizens. . . . It is true that in certain countries this
state of affairs exists. It is a condition which, if it have
numerous and serious inconveniences, also offers some
advantages — above all when, by a fortunate inconsistency,
the legislator is inspired by Christian principles — and,
though these advantages cannot justify the false principle
of separation nor authorize its defence, they nevertheless
render worthy of toleration a situation which, practically,
might be worse.

But in France, a nation Catholic in her traditions and
by the present faith of the great majority of her sons,
the Church should not be placed in the precarious position
to which she must submit among other peoples ; and the
better that Catholics understand the aim of the enemies
who desire this separation, the less will they favor it.
To these enemies, and they say it clearly enough, this

ALLEGIANCE TO THE REPUBLIC. 263

separation means that political legislation be entirely
independent of religious legislation; nay, more, that
Power be absolutely indifferent to the interests of Chris-
tian society, that is to say, of the Church ; in fact, that it
deny her very existence. But they make a reservation
formulated thus: As soon as the Church, utihzing the
resources which common law accords to the least among
Frenchmen, will, by redoubhng her native activity, cause
her work to prosper, then the State intervening, can and
will put French Catholics outside the common law itself.
... In a word: the ideal of these men would be a re-
turn to paganism: the State would recognize the Church
only when it would be pleased to persecute her.

We have explained. Venerable Brethren, in an abridged
though clear way, some if not all the points upon which
French Cathohcs and all intelligent men should be at
peace and unity, so as to remedy, in so far as still remains
possible, the evils with which France is afflicted, and to
elevate its moral greatness. The points in question are:
Religion and country, political power and legislation, the
conduct to be observed in regard to this power and legis-
lation, the Concordat, the separation of Church and State.
. . . We cherish the hope and the confidence that the
elucidation of these points will dissipate the prejudices of
many honest,well-meaning men, facihtate the pacification of
minds, and thereby cement the union of all Catholics for the
sustaining of the great cause of Christ, who loves the Franks.

How consoling to Our heart to encourage you all in
this way and to behold you all responding with docihty
to Our appeal! You, Venerable Brethren, by your
authority and with the enlightened zeal for Church and
Fatherland which so distinguishes you, will give able
support to this peace-making work. We dehght in the
hope that those who are in power will appreciate Our
words, which aim at the happiness and prosperity of France.

Meanwhile, as a pledge of Our paternal affection, We
bestow upon you,Venerable Brethren, upon your clergy and
also upon all the Catholics of France, the apostolic blessing.

THE POPE AND THE COLUMBUS TER-^
CENTENARY.

Enq^dical Quarto Abrwpto Scvculo, July 16, 1902.

t^ Now that four centuries have sped since a Ligurian first,
' under God's guidance, touched shores unknown beyond
the Atlantic, the whole world is eager to celebrate the
memory of the event, and glorify its author. Nor could
a worthier reason be found wherethrough zeal should be
kindled. For the exploit is in itself the highest and
grandest which any age has ever seen accomplished by
man; and he who achieved it, for the greatness of his
mind and heart, can be compared to but few in the his-
tory of humanity. By his toil another world emerged
from the unsearched bosom of the ocean: hundreds of
thousands of mortals have, from a state of bhndness
been raised to the common level of the human race, re-
claimed from savagery to gentleness and humanity;
and, greatest of all, by the acquisition of those blessings
of which Jesus Christ is the author, they have been re-
called from destruction to eternal life. Europe, indeed,
overpowered at the time by the novelty and strangeness
of the discovery, presently came to recognize what was
due to Colimibus, when, through the numerous colonists
shipped to America, through the constant intercourse and
interchange of business and the ocean-trade, an incredible
addition was made to our knowledge of nature, and to
the commonwealth; whilst at the same time the prestige
of the European name was marvellously increased. There-
fore, amidst so lavish a display of honor, so unanimoua

264

THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY. 265

a tribute of congratulations, it is fitting that the Church
should not be altogether silent; since she, by custom and
precedent, willingly approves and endeavors to forward
whatsoever she sees, and wherever she sees it, that is honor-
able and praiseworthy. It is true she reserves her special
and greatest honors for virtues that most signally pro-
claim a high morality, for these are directly associated
with the salvation of souls; but she does not, therefore,
despise or lightly estimate \'irtues of other kinds. On the
contrary, she has ever highly favored and held in honor
those who have deserved well of men in civil society, and
have thus attained a lasting name among posterity. For
God, indeed, is especially wonderful in His saints — mira-
bilis in Sanctis suis; but the impress of His divine virtue
also appears in those who shine with excellent power of
mind and spirit, since high intellect and greatness of
spirit can be the property of men only through their
parent and creator, God. But there is, besides, another
reason, a unique one, why We consider that this immortal
achievement should be recalled by Us with memorial
words. For Columbus is ours; since if a little considera-I
tion be given to the particular reason of his design in ex-
ploring the mare tenebrosum, and also the manner in which
he endeavored to execute the design, it is indubitable
that the Catholic faith was the strongest motive for the
inception and prosecution of the design; so that for
this reason also the whole human race owes not a little
to the Church. For we have the record of not a fevi'
brave and experienced men, both before and after Chris-
topher Columbus, who vnth. stubbornness and zeal ex-
plored unknown lands and seas yet more unknown. And
the memory of these, man, mindful of benefits, rightly
holds, and will hold in honor; because they advanced the
ends of knowledge and humanity, and increased the
common prosperity of the race, not by light labor,
but by supreme exertion, often accompanied by great
dangers. But there is, nevertheless, between these and

266 THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY.

him of whom We speak, a generous difference. He was
distinguished by this unique note, that in his work of
traversing and retraversing immense tracts of ocean, he
looked for a something greater and higher than did these
others. We say not that he was umnoved by perfectly
honorable aspirations after knowledge, and deserving well
of human society; nor did he despise glory, which is a
most engrossing ideal to great souls ; nor did he altogether
scorn a hope of advantages to himself; but to him far
before all these human considerations was the considera-
tion of his ancient faith, which questionless dowered
him with strength of mind and will, and often strengthened
and consoled him in the midst of the greatest difficulties.
This view and aim is known to have possessed his mind
above all; namely, to open a way for the Gospel over

Lnew lands and seas.
This, indeed, may seem of small hkehhood to such as
confine their whole thought and care to the evidence of
the senses, and refuse to look for anything higher. But
great intellects, on the contrary, are usually wont to
cherish higher ideals; for they, of all men, are most ex-
cellently fitted to receive the intuitions and breathings of
divine faith. Columbus certainly had joined to the study
of nature the study of religion, and had trained his mind
on the teachings that well up from the most intimate
depths of the Catholic faith. For this reason, when he
learned from the lessons of astronomy and the record of
the ancients, that there were great tracts of land lying
towards the West, beyond the limits of the known world,
lands hitherto explored by no man, he saw in spirit a
mighty multitude, cloaked in miserable darkness, given
over to evil rites, and the superstitious worship of vain
gods. Miserable it is to five in a barbarous state and
with savage manners: but more miserable to lack the
knowledge of that which is highest, and to dwell in ig-
norance of the one true God. Considering these things,
therefore, in his mind, he sought first of all to extend the

THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY. 267

Christian name and the benefits of Christian charity to
the West, as is abundantly proved by the history of the
whole undertaking. For when he first petitioned Ferdi-
nand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, for fear lest
they should be reluctant to encourage the undertaking,
he clearly explained its object: "That their gloiy would
grow to immortality, if they resolved to carry the name
and doctrine of Jesus Christ into regions so distant."
And in no long time having obtained his desires, he bears
witness: "That he implores of God that, through His
divine aid and grace, the sovereigns may continue stead-
fast in their desire to fill these new missionary shores with
the truths of the Gospel." He hastens to seek mission-
aries from Pope Alexander VL, through a letter in which
this sentence occurs: "I trust that, by God's help, I may
spread the Holy Name and Gospel of Jesus Christ as
widely as may be." He was carried away, as we think,
with joy, when on his first return from the Indies he wrote
to Raphael Sanchez: "That to God should be rendered
immortal thanks, who had brought his labors such pros-
perous issues; that Jesus Christ rejoices and triumphs
on earth no less than in heaven, at the approaching sal-
vation of nations innumerable, who were before hastening
to destruction." And if he moved Ferdinand and Isabella
to decree that only Cathohc Christians should be suffered
to approach the New World and trade with the natives,
he brought forward as reason, "that he sought nothing
from his enterprise and endeavor but the increase and
glory of the Christian religion." And this was well known
to Isabella, who better than any had understood the
great man's mind; indeed it is evident that it had been
clearly laid before that most pious, masculine-minded,
and great-souled woman. For she had declared of Co-
lumbus that he would boldly thrust himself upon the
vast ocean, "to achieve a most signal thing, for the sake
of the divine glory." And to Columbus himself, on his
second return, she writes: "That the expenses she had

268 THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY.

incurred, and was about to incur, for the Indian expe-
ditions, had been well bestowed; for thence would ensure
a spreading of Catholicism."

In truth, except for a divine cause, whence was he to
draw constancy and strength of mind to bear those suf-
ferings which to the last he was obliged to endure? We
allude to the adverse opinions of the learned, the rebuffs
of the great, the storms of a raging ocean, and those as-
siduous vigils by which he more than once lost the use
of his sight. Then, in addition, were fights with savages,
the infidelity of friends and companions, criminal con-
spiracies, the perfidy of the envious, and the calumnies
of detractors. He must needs have succumbed under
labors so vast and overwhelming if he had not been
sustained by the consciousness of a nobler aim, which
he knew would bring much glory to the Christian name,
and salvation to an infinite multitude. And indeed the
circumstances of the time illustrate his achievement mth
wonderful effect. Columbus threw open America at the
time when a great storm was about to break over the
Church. As far, therefore, as it is lawful for man to
divine from events the ways of divine Providence, he
seemed to have truly been born, by a singular provision
of God, to remedy those losses which were awaiting the
Catholic Church on the side of Europe. To persuade the
Indian people to Christianity was, indeed, the duty and
work of the Church, and upon that duty she entered
from the beginning, and continued, and still continues,
to pursue in continuous charity, reaching finally the
furthest limits of Patagonia, Columbus resolved to go
before and prepare the ways for the Gospel, and, deeply
absorbed in this idea, gave all his energies to it, attempt-
ing hardly anything without religion for his guide and
piety for his companion. We mention what is indeed
well known, but is also characteristic of the man's mind
and soul. For being compelled by the Portuguese and
Genoese '^ leave his object unachieved, when he had

THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY. 269

reached Spain, within the walls of a reKgious house he
matured his great design of meditated exploration, hav-
ing for confidant and adviser a rehgious — a disciple of
Francis of Assisi. Being at length about to depart for
the sea, he attended to all that which concerned the wel-
fare of his soul on the eve of his enterprise. He implored
the Queen of heaven to assist his efforts and direct his
course; and he ordered that no sail should be hoisted
until the name of the Trinity had been invoked. When
he had put out to sea, and the waves were now growing
tempestuous, and the sailors were filled with terror, he
kept a tranquil constancy of mind, relying on God. The
very names he gave to the newly discovered islands tell
the purposes of the man. At each disembarkation he
offered up prayers to Almighty God, nor did he take
possession save "in the Name of Jesus Christ." Upon
whatsoever shores he might be driven, his first act was
to set upon the shore the standard of the holy cross:
and the name of the divine Redeemer, which he had so
often sung on the open sea to the sound of the murmuring
waves, he conferred upon the new islands. Thus at
Hispaniola he began to build from the ruins of the temple,
and all popular celebrations were preceded by the most
sacred ceremonies.

This, then, was the object, this the end Columbus had
in view in traversing such a vast extent of land and water
to discover those countries hitherto uncultivated and
inaccessible, but which, afterwards, as we have seen, have
made such rapid strides in civilization and wealth and
fame. And in truth the magnitude of the undertaking
as well as the importance and variety of the benefits that
arose from it, call for some fitting and honorable com-
memoration of it among men. And, above all, it is fitting
that we should confess and celebrate in an especial manner
the will and designs of the Eternal Wisdom, under whose
guidance the discoverer of the New World placed himself
with a devotion so touching.

270 THE COLUMBUS TERCENTENARY.

In order, therefore, that the commemoration of Co-
lumbus may be worthily observed, religion must give her
assistance to the secular ceremonies. And as at the
time of the first news of the discovery public thanksgiving
was offered by the command of the Sovereign Pontiff
to Almighty God, so now we have resolved to act in like
manner in celebrating the anniversary of this auspicious
event.

We decree, therefore, that on October 12, or on the
following Sunday, if the Ordinary should prefer it, in all
the cathedral churches and convent chapels throughout
Spain, Italy, and the two Americas, after the office of the
day there shall be celebrated a Solemn Mass of the Most
Holy Trinity. Moreover, besides the above-mentioned
countries, We feel assured that the other nations, prompted
to it by the counsel of their bishops will likewise join in the
celebration, since it is fitting that an event from which all
have derived benefit should be piously and gratefully com-
memorated by all.

Meanwhile, as a pledge of heavenly favors and of Our
own paternal good-will, we lovingly bestow the Apostolic
Benediction in Our Lord upon you. Venerable Brethren,
and upon your clergy and people.

TH^ STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

Encydical Letter Providentissimits Detis, November 18,

1893.

The God of all providence, who in the adorable designs
of His love at first elevated the human race to the partici-
pation of the divine nature, and afterwards dehvered it
from universal guilt and ruin, restoring it to its primitive
dignity, has, in consequence, bestowed upon man a splen-
did gift and safeguard — making known to him, by super-
natural means, the hidden mysteries of His divinity, His
wisdom and His mercy. For although in divine revelation
there are contained some things which are not beyond the
reach of unassisted reason, and which are made the objects
of such revelation in order "that all may come to know
them with facility, certainty, and safety from error, yet
not on this account can supernatural revelation be said to
be absolutely necessary; it is only necessary because God
has ordained man to a supernatural end." ^ This super-
natural revelation, according to the belief of the universal
Church, is contained both in unwritten tradition and in
written books, which are, therefore, called sacred and
canonical because, "being written under the inspiration of
the Holy Ghost, they have God for their author, and as such
have been delivered to the Church." ' This behef has
been perpetually held and professed by the Church in re-
gard to the Books of both Testaments ; and there are well-
known documents of the gravest kind, coming dovm to us
from the earliest times, which proclaim that God, who

* Ck)nc. Vat. aess iii. cap. ii. de revel. ^ Ibid.

271

272 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

spoke first by the prophets, then by His own mouth, and
lastly by the apostles, composed also the canonical Scrip-
tures,^ and that these are His own oracles and words * —
a Letter written by our Heavenly Father and transmitted
by the sacred writers to the human race in its pilgrimage
so far from its heavenly country,^ If, then, such and so
great is the excellence and dignity of the Scriptures, that
God Himself has composed them, and that they treat of
God's marvellous mysteries, counsels and works, it follows
that the branch of sacred theology which is concerned
with the defence and elucidation of these divine books
must be excellent and useful in the highest degree.

Now We, who by the help of God, and not without fruit,
have by frequent Letters and exhortation endeavored to
promote other branches of study which seem capable of
advancing the glory of God and contributing to the salv::-
tion of souls, have for a long time cherished the desire to
give an impulse to the noble science of Holy Scripture,
and to impart to Scripture study a direction suitable to the
needs of the present day. The sohcitude of the apostohc
office naturally urges, and even compels us, not only to
desire that this grand source of Cathohc revelation should
be made safely and abundantly accessible to the flock of
Jesus Christ, but also not to suffer any attempt to defile or
corrupt it, either on the part of those who impiously or
openly assaU the Scriptures, or of those who are led astray
into fallacious and imprudent novelties. We are not igno-
rant, indeed, Venerable Brethren, that there are not a few
Catholics, men of talent and learning, who do devote them-
selves with ardor to the defence of the sacred writings
and to making them known and better understood. But
whilst giving to these the commendation they deserve, We
cannot but earnestly exhort others also, from whose skill

' S. Aug. de civ. Dei. xi. 3.

'S. aem. Rom. 1 ad. Cor. 45; S. Polycarp. ad Phil. 7; S. Iren.
c. haer. ii. 28, 2.

* S. Chrys. in Gen. hom. 2, 2; S. Aug. in Ps. xxx., serm., 2, 1; S.
Greg. M. ad Theo. ep. iv. 31.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 273

and piety and learning we have a right to expect good re-
sults, to give themselves to the same most praiseworthy
work. It is Our wish and fervent desire to see an increase
in the mmiber of the approved and persevering laborers in
the cause of Holy Scripture; and more especially that
those whom divine grace has called to holy orders should,
day by day, as their state demands, display greater diUgence
and industry in reading, meditating, and explaining it.

Among the reasons for which the Holy Scripture is so
worthy of commendation — ^in addition to its own excellence
and to the homage which we owe to God's Word — the
chief of all is, the innumerable benefits of which it is the
source; according to the infallible testimony of the Holy
Ghost Himself, who says: All Scripture inspired of God
is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in jus-
tice: that the man of God may be perfect, furnished to every
good work} That such was the purpose of God in giving
the Scripture to men is shown by the example of Christ
our Lord and of His apostles. For He Himself who
"obtained authority by miracles, merited behef by au-
thority, and by belief drew to himseK the multitude" ^
was accustomed, in the exercise of His divine mission, to
appeal to the Scriptures. He uses them at times to prove
that He is sent by God, and is God Himself. From them
He cites instructions for His disciples and confirmation of
His doctrine. He vindicates them from the calumnies of
objectors; He quotes them against Sadducees and Phari-
sees and retorts from them upon Satan himself when he
dares to tempt Him. At the close of His life His utterances
are from the Holy Scripture, and it is the Scripture that He
expounds to His disciples after His resurrection, until He
ascends to the glory of His Father. Faithful to His pre-
cepts, the apostles, although He Himself granted signs
and wonders to be done by their hands,^ nevertheless used
with the greatest effect the sacred writings, in order to

» 2 Tim. ui. 16, 17. * S. Aug. de utU. cred. xiv 32.

» Act xiv. 3.

274 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

persuade the nations everywhere of the wisdom of Chris-
tianity, to conquer the obstinacy of the Jews, and to sup-
press the outbreak of heresy. This is plainly seen in their
discourses, especially in those of St. Peter; these were
often little less than a series of citations from the Old Testa-
ment making in the strongest manner for the new dispen-
sation. We find the same things in the Gospels of St.
Matthew and St. John and in the Cathohc Epistles; and,
most remarkable of all, in the words of him who "boasts
that he learned the law at the feet of Gamahel, in order
that, being armed with spiritual weapons, he might after-
wards say with confidence, 'the arms of our warfare are
not carnal but mighty unto God.'"^ Let all, therefore,
especially the novices of the ecclesiastical army, under-
stand how deeply the sacred books should be esteemed,
and with what eagerness and reverence they should ap-
proach this great arsenal of heavenly arms. For those
whose duty it is to handle Catholic doctrine before the
learned or the unlearned will nowhere find more ample
matter or more abundant exhortation, whether on the sub-
ject of God, the supreme Good and the all-perfect Being,
or the works which display His glory and His love. No-
where is there anything more full or more express on the
subject of the Saviour of the world than is to be found in
the whole range of the Bible. As St. Jerome says, to be
ignorant of the Scripture is not to know Christ} In its
pages His Image stands out, living and breathing ; diffusing
everywhere around consolation in trouble, encourage-
ment to virtue, and attraction to the love of God. And as
to the Church, her institutions, her nature, her oflSce and
her gifts, we find in Holy Scripture so many references
and so many ready and convincing arguments that, as St.
Jerome again most truly says, "A man who is well
grounded in the testimonies of the Scripture is the bulwark
of the Church." ^ And if we come to morality and disci-

' St. Hier. de stud. Script, ad Paulin. ep. liii. 3.

2 in Isaiam. Prol. * in Isaiam liv. 12.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 275

pline, an apostolic man finds in the sacred writings abun-
dant and excellent assistance; most holy precepts, gentle
and strong exhortation, splendid examples of every virtue,
and finally the promise of eternal reward and the threat of
eternal punishment, uttered in terms of solemn import, in
God's name and in God's own words.

And it is this peculiar and singular power of Holy Script-
ure, arising from the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, which
gives authority to the sacred orator, fills him with apostohc
liberty of speech, and communicates force and power to
his eloquence. For those who infuse into their efforts the
spirit and strength of the Word of God speak not in
word only, but in power also, and in the Holy Ghost, and
in much fulness} Hence, those preachers are foolish
and improvident who, in speaking of religion and proclaim-
ing the things of God, use no words but those of human
science and human prudence, trusting to their own reason-
ings rather than to those of God. Their discourses may
be brilliant and fine, but they must be feeble and they
must be cold, for they are without the fire of the utterance
of God ' and they must fall far short of that mighty power
which the speech of God possesses: for the Word of God
is living and effectual, and more piercing than any two-
edged sword; and reaching unto the division of the soul
and the spirit.^ But, indeed, those who have a right to
speak are agreed that there is in the Holy Scripture an
eloquence that is wonderfully varied and rich and worthy
of great themes. This St. Augustine thoroughly under-
stood and has abundantly set forth.* This, also, is con-
firmed by the best preachers of all ages, who have grate-
fully acknowledged that they owed their repute chiefly to
the assiduous use of the Bible, and to devout meditation
on its pages.

The Holy Fathers well knew all this by practical experi-
ence, and they never cease to extol the sacred Scripture

> 1 Thess. i. 5. » Hebr. iv. 12.

* Jerem. xxiii. 29. * De doctr. Chr. iv, 6, 7.

276 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

and its fruits. In innumerable passages of their writings
we find them applying to it such phrases as an inexhaust-
ible treasury of heavenly doctrine,^ or an overflotoing foun-
tain of salvation,^ or putting it before us as fertile pas-
tures and beautiful gardens in which the flock of the
Lord is marvellously refreshed and delighted.' Let us
listen to the words of St. Jerome, in his Epistle to Nepo-
tian: "Often read the divine Scriptures; yea, let holy
reading be always in thy hand; study that which thou thy-
self must preach. . . . Let the speech of the priest be
ever seasoned with Scriptural reading."* St. Gregory the
Great, than whom no one has more admirably described
the pastoral office, writes in the same sense. "Those,"
he says, " who are zealous in the work of preaching must
never cease the study of the written Word of God."''
St. Augustine, however, warns us that " vainly does
the preacher utter the Word of God exteriorly unless
he listens to it interiorly";^ and St. Gregory instructs
sacred orators " first to find in Holy Scripture the knowl-
edge of themselves, and then carry it to others, lest in re-
proving others they forget themselves." ' Admonitions
such as these had, indeed, been uttered long before by the
apostolic voice which had learned its lesson from Christ
Himself, who " began to do and teach." It was not to
Timothy alone, but to the whole order of the clergy, that
the command was addressed: Take heed to thyself and
to doctrine; be earnest in them. For in doing this thou
shalt both save thyself and them that hear thee.^ For the
saving and for the perfection of ourselves and of others

* S. Chrys. in Gen. Horn. xxi. 2; Horn. Ix. 3j S. Aug. de Disc.
Christ, ii.

' S. Athan. ep. fest. xxxix.

* S. Aug. serm. xxvi. 24 ; S. Ambr. in Ps. cxviii, senn. six. 2.

* S. Hier. de vita cleric, ad Nepot.

» S. Greg. M. Regul. past. ii. 11 (al. 22); Moral, xvii. 26 (aL 14).

° S. Aug. serm. clxxix. 1.

' S. Greg. M. Regul. past. iii. 24 (aL 14).

«1 Tim. iv. 16.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 277

there is at hand the very best of help in the Holy Script-
ures, as the Book of Psalms, among others, so constantly
insists ; but those only will find it who bring to this divine
reading not only docility and attention but also piety and
an innocent life. For the sacred Scripture is not like
other books. Dictated by the Holy Ghost, it contains
things of the deepest importance, which in many in-
stances are most difficult and obscure. To understand
and explain such things there is always required the
"coming"^ of the same Holy Spirit; that is to say, His
light and His grace; and these, as the royal psalmist so
frequently insists, are to be sought by humble prayer
and guarded by holiness of life.

It is in this that the watchful eye of the Church shines
forth conspicuously. By admirable laws and regulations,
she has shown herself solicitous that " the celestial treasure
of the sacred books, so bountifully bestowed upon man
by the Holy Spirit, should not he neglected." ^ She has
prescribed that a considerable portion of them shall be
read and piously reflected upon b}'^ all her ministers in the
daily office of the sacred psalmody. She has ordered that
in cathedral churches, in monasteries, and in other con-
vents in which study can conveniently be pursued, they
shall be expounded and interpreted by capable men; and
she has strictly commanded that her children shall be
fed with the saving words of the Gospel at least on Sundaj^s
and solemn feasts.' Moreover, it is o"wdng to the wisdom
and exertions of the Church that there has always been
continued, from century to century, that cultivation of
Holy Scripture which has been so remarkable and has
borne such ample fruit.

And here, in order to strengthen Our teaching and Our
exhortations, it is well to recall how, from the beginning of
Christianity, all who have been renowned for holiness of

' S. Hier. in Mic. i. 10.

* Cone. Trid. sess. v. decret. de refonn, 1.

» Ibid 1, 2,

27g THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

life and sacred learning have given their deep and constant
attention to Holy Scripture. If we consider the im-
mediate disciples of the apostles, St. Clement of Rome,
St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Polycarp — or the apologists,
such as St. Justin and St. Irenseus, we find that in their
letters and books, whether in defence of the Catholic
faith or in its commendation, they drew faith, strength,
and unction from the Word of God. When there arose,
in various sees, catechetical and theological schools, of
which the most celebrated were those of Alexandria and
of Antioch, there was little taught in those schools but
what was contained in the reading, the interpretation,
and the defence of the divine written word. From them
came forth numbers of Fathers and WTiters whose labori-
ous studies and admirable writings have justly merited
for the three following centuries the appellation of the
golden age of biblical exegesis. In the Eastern Church
the greatest name of all is Origen — a man remarkable
alike for penetration of genius and persevering labor;
from whose numerous works and his great Hexapla almost
all have drawn who came after him. Others who have
widened the field of this science may also be named, as
especially eminent; thus, Alexandria could boast of St.
Clement and St. Cyril; Palestine, of Eusebius and the
other St. Cyril; Cappadocia, of St. Basil the Great and
the two Gregories, of Nazianzus and Nyssa; Antioch, of
St. John Chrysostom, in whom the science of Scripture
was rivalled by the splendor of his eloquence. In the
Western Church there are as many names as great: Ter-
tullian, St. Cyprian, St. Hilary, St. Ambrose, St. Leo the
Great, St. Gregory the Great; most famous of all, St.
Augustine and St. Jerome, of whom the former was so
marvellously acute in penetrating the sense of God's
Word and so fertile in the use that he made of it for the
promotion of the Catholic truth, and the latter has re-
ceived from the Church, by reason of his pre-eminent
knowledge of Scripture and his labors in promoting its

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 279

use, the name of the "great Doctor."* From this period
down to the eleventh century, although biblical studies
did not flourish with the same vigor and the same fruit-
fulness as before, yet they did flourish, and principally
by the instrumentality of the clergy. It was their care
and solicitude that selected the best and most useful
things that the ancients had left, arranged them in order,
and published them with additions of their own — as did
St. Isidore of Seville, Venerable Bede, and Alcuin, among
the most prominent; it was they who illustrated the
sacred pages with "glosses" or short commentaries, as
we see in Walafrid Strabo and St. Anselm of Laon, or ex-
pended fresh labor in securing their integrity, as did St.
Peter Damian and Blessed Lanfranc. In the twelfth cen-
tury many took up, with great success, the allegorical ex-
position of Scripture. In this kind, St. Bernard is pre-
eminent; and his writings, it may be said, are Scripture
all through. With the age of the scholastics came fresh
and welcome progress in the study of the Bible. That the
scholastics were solicitous about the genuineness of the
Latin version is evident from the Correctoria Biblica, or
list of emendations, which they have left. But they ex-
pended their labors and industry chiefly on interpretation
and explanation. To them we owe the accurate and clear
distinction, such as had not been given before, of the
various senses of the sacred words; the assignment of the
value of each "sense" in theology; the division of books
into parts, and the summaries of the various parts; the
investigation of the objects of the writers; the demonstra-
tion of the connection of sentence with sentence, and
clause with clause; all of which is calculated to throw
much light on the more obscure passages of the sacred
volume. The valuable work of the scholastics in Holy
Scripture is seen in their theological treatises and in their
Scripture commentaries; and in this respect the greatest
name among them all is St. Thomas Aquinas.

' See the Collect on his feast, September 30.

280 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

When Our predecessor, Clement V., established chairs
of Oriental literature in the Roman College and in the
principal universities of Europe, Cathohes began to make
more accurate investigation on the original text of the
Bible as well as on the Latin version. The revival
amongst us of Greek learning, and, much more, the happy
invention of the art of printing, gave a strong impetus to
biblical studies. In a brief space of time, innumerable
editions, especially of the Vulgate, poured from the press
and were diffused throughout the Catholic world; so
honored and loved was Holy Scripture during that very
period against which the enemies of the Church direct
their calumnies Nor must we forget how many learned
men there were, chiefly among the religious orders, who
did excellent work for the Bible between the Council of
Vienna and that of Trent; men who, by the employment
of modern means and appliances, and by the tribute of
their own genius and learning, not only added to the rich
store of ancient times but prepared the way for the suc-
ceeding century, the century which followed the Council
of Trent, when it almost seemed that the great age of
the Fathers had returned. For it is well known, and
We recall it with pleasure, that Our predecessors, from
Pius IV. to Clement VIII., caused to be prepared the
celebrated editions of the Vulgate and the Septuagint,
which, having been published by the command and
authority of Sixtus V., and of the same Clement, are now
in common use. At this time, moreover, were carefully
brought out various other ancient versions of the Bible, and
the Polyglots of Antwerp and of Paris, most important for
the investigation of the true meaning of the text; nor is
there any one book of either Testament which did not find
more than one expositor, nor any grave question which
did not profitably exercise the ability of many inquirers,
among whom there are not a few — ^more especially of
those who made most use of the Fathers — who have
acquired great reputation. From that time downwards

THE STUDY OP HOLY SCRIPTURE. 281

the labor and solicitude of Catholics have never been
wanting; for, as time went on, eminent scholars have
carried on bibUcal studies with success, and have defended
Holy Scripture against rationalism with the same weapons
of philology and kindred sciences with which it had been
attacked. The calm and fair consideration of what has
been said will clearly show that the Church has never
failed in taking due measures to bring the Scriptures
within reach of her children, and that she has ever held
fast and exercised profitably that guardianship conferred
upon her by Almighty God for the protection and glory of
His Holy Word; so that she has never required, nor
does she now require, any stimulation from without.

We must now. Venerable Brethren, as Our purpose
demands, impart to you such counsels as seem best suited
for carrjdng on successfully the study of biblical science.

But first it must be clearly understood whom we have
to oppose and contend against, and what are their tactics
and their arms. In earUer times the contest was chiefly
with those who, relying on private judgment and repudi-
ating the divine traditions and teaching office of the
Church, held the Scriptures to be the one source of revela-
tion and the final appeal in matters of faith. Now we
have to meet the rationalists, true children and inheritors
of the older heretics, who, trusting in their turn to their
OAvn way of thinking, have rejected even the scraps and
renmants of Christian belief which had been handed down
to them. They deny that there is any such thing as
revelation or inspiration, or Holy Scripture at all; they
see, instead, only the forgeries and falsehoods of men;
they set down the Scripture narratives as stupid fables
and lying stories: the prophecies and oracles of God are
to them either predictions made up after the event or
forecasts formed by the light of nature; the miracles and
wonders of God's power are not what they are said to be,
but the startling effects of natural law, or else mere tricks
and myths; and the apostolic Gospels and writings are

282 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCPIPTURE.

not the work of the apostles at all. These detestablt
errors, whereby they think they destroy the truth of the
divine books, are obtruded on the world as the peremptory
pronouncements of a newly invented free science; a
science, however, which is so far from final that they are
perpetually modifying and supplementing it. And there
are some of them who, notwithstanding their impious
opinions and utterances about God, and Christ, the
Gospels and the rest of Holy Scripture, would fain be con-
sidered both theologians and Christians and men of the
Gospel, and who attempt to disguise by such honorable
names their rashness and their pride. To them we must
add not a few professors of other sciences who approve
their views and give them assistance, and are urged to
attack the Bible by a similar intolerance of revelation.
And it is deplorable to see these attacks growing every
day more numerous and more severe. It is sometimes
men of learning and judgment who are assailed; but these
have little difficulty in defending themselves from evil
consequences. The efforts and arts of the enemy are
chiefly directed against the more ignorant masses of the
people. They diffuse their deadly poison by means of
books, pamphlets, and newspapers; they spread it by
addresses and by conversation; they are found every-
where; and they are in possession of numerous schools,
taken by violence from the Church, in which, by ridicule
and scurrilous jesting, they pervert the credulous and
unformed minds of the young to the contempt of Holy
Scripture. Should not these things, Venerable Brethren,
stir up and set on fire the heart of every pastor, so that to
this knowledge, falsely so-called,^ may be opposed the
ancient and true science which the Church, through the
apostles, has received from Christ, and that Holy Scripture
may find the champions that are needed in so momentous
a battle?

Let our first care, then, be to see that in seminaries and
' 1 Tim. iv. 20.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 283

academical institutions the study of Holy Scripture is
placed on such a footing as its own importance and the
circumstances of the time demand. With this view,
the first thing which requires attention is the wise choice
of professors. Teachers of sacred Scripture are not to
be appointed at haphazard out of the crowd; but they
must be men whose character and fitness are proved by
their love of, and their long familiarity with, the Bible,
and by suitable learning and study.

It is a matter of equal importance to provide in time for
a continuous succession of such teachers ; and it will be well,
wherever this can be done, to select young men of good
promise who have successfully accompUshed their theo-
logical course, and to set them apart exclusively for Hol}^
Scripture, affording them facilities for full and complete
studies. Professors thus chosen and thus prepared
may enter with confidence on the task that is appoiuted
for them; and that they may carry out their work well
and profitably, let them take heed to the instructions
We now proceed to give.

At the commencement of a course of Holy Scripture,
let the professor strive earnestly to form the judgment of
the young beginners so as to train them equally to defend
the sacred writings and to penetrate their meaning.
This is the object of the treatise which is called "Intro-
duction." Here the student is taught how to prove the
integrity and authority of the Bible, how to investigate
and ascertain its true sense, and how to meet and refute
objections. It is needless to insist upon the importance
of making these prehminary studies in an orderly and
thorough fashion, with the accompaniment and assistance
of theology; for the whole subsequent course must rest
on the foundation thus laid and make use of the light thus
acquired. Next, the teacher will turn his attention to
that more fruitful division of Scripture science which has
to do with interpretation, wherein is imparted the method
of using the Word of God for the advantage of reUgion

284 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

and piety. We recognize, without hesitation, that neither
the extent of the matter nor the time at disposal allows
each single book of the Bible to be separately gone through.
But the teaching should result in a definite and ascer-
tained method of interpretation — and, therefore, the
professor should equally avoid the mistake of giving a
mere taste of every book, and of dwelling at too great a
length on a part of one book. If most schools cannot do
what is done in large institutions — take the students
through the whole of one or two books continuously and
with a certain development — yet at least those parts which
are selected should be treated with suitable fulness, in
such a_way that the students may learn from the sample
that is put before them to love and use the remainder of
the sacred book during the whole of their lives. The
professor, following the tradition of antiquity, will make
use of the Vulgate as his text; for the Council of Trent
decreed that *'in pubhc lectures, disputations, preaching,
and exposition," ^ the Vulgate is the "authentic" version;
and this is the existing custom of the Church. At the
same time, the other versions, which Christian antiquity
has approved, should not be neglected, more especially the
more ancient MSS. For, although the meaning of the
Hebrew and Greek is substantially rendered by the Vulgate,
nevertheless, wherever there may be ambiguity or want of
clearness, the "examination of older tongues," ^ to quote
St. Augustine, will be useful and advantageous. But in
this matter we need hardly say that the greatest pru-
dence is required, for the "office of a commentator," as
St. Jerome says, "is to set forth not what he himself
would prefer but what his author says." ^ The question
of "reading " having been, when necessary, carefully dis-
cussed, the next tiling is to investigate and expound the
meaning. And the first counsel to be given is this: that

' Sess. iv. deer, de edit, et usu sacr. libror.

' De doctr. chr. iii. 4.
* Ad Pammachium.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 285

the more our adversaries contend to the contrary, so much
the more solicitously should we adhere to the received
and approved canons of interpretation. Hence, whilst
weighing the meaning of words, the connection of ideas,
the parallelism of passages, and the like, we should by all
means make use of such illustrations as can be drawn
from opposite erudition of an external sort; but this
should be done with caution, so as not to bestow on ques-
tions of this kind more labor and time than are spent on
the sacred books themselves, and not to overload the
minds of the students with a mass of information that
will be rather a hindrance than a help.

The professor may now safely pass on to the use of
Scripture in matters of theology. On this head it must be
observed that, in addition to the usual reasons which
make ancient writings more or less difficult to understand,
there are some which are peculiar to the Bible. For the
language of the Bible is employed to express, under the
inspiration of the Holy Ghost, many things which art
beyond the power and scope of the reason of man — that is
to say, divine mysteries and all that is related to them.
There is sometimes in such passages a fulness and a hidden
depth of meaning which the letter hardly expresses and
which the laws of interpretation hardly warrant. More-
over, the Uteral sense itself frequently admits other
senses, adapted to illustrate dogma or to confirm moraUty.
Wherefore, it must be recognized that the sacred writ-
ings are wrapped in a certain religious obscurity, and that
no one can enter into their interior without a guide;*
God so disposing, as the holy Fathers commonly teach,
in order that men may investigate them with greater
ardor and earnestness, and that what is attained with
difficulty may sink more deeply into the mind and heart,
and, most of all, that they may understand that God has
dehvered the Holy Scripture to the Church, and that in

^ S. Hier. ad Paulin. de studio Script, ep. liii. 4.

286 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

reading and making use of His Word they must follow
the Church as their guide and their teacher. St. Irenseus
long since laid down that where the chrismata of God
were, there the truth was to be learned, and the Holy
Scripture was safely interpreted by those who had the
apostolic succession.^ His teaching and that of other
holy Fathers is taken up by the Council of the Vatican,
which in renewing the decree of Trent declared its "mind"
to be this — that "in things of faith and morals, belonging
to the building up of Christian doctrine, that it is to be
considered the true sense of Holy Scripture, which has
been held and is held by our Holy Mother the Church,
whose place it is to judge of the true sense and interpre-
tation of the Scriptures; and, therefore, that it is per-
mitted to no one to interpret Holy Scripture against such
sense or also against the unanimous agreement of the
Fathers." ^ By this most wise decree the Church by no
means prevents or restrains the pursuit of biblical science,
but rather protects it from error, and largely assists its real
progress. A wide field is still left open to the private
student, in which his hermeneutical skill may display
itself with signal effect and to the advantages of the
Church. On the one hand, in those passages of Holy
Scripture which have not as yet received a certain and
definite interpretation, such labors may, in. the benignant
providence of God, prepare for and bring to maturity
the judgment of the Church; on the other, in passages
already defined, the private student may do work equally
valuable, either by setting them forth more clearly to the
flock or more skilfully to the scholars, or by defending
them more powerfully from hostile attack. Wherefore
the first and dearest object of the CathoUc commentator
should be to interpret those passages which have received
an authentic interpretation either from the sacred writers

^C. haer, iv. 26, 5.

'Sess. iii. cap. ii. de revel.; cf. Cone. Trid. sess. iv. decret de
edit, et usu sacr. libror.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 287

themselves, under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost (as
in many places of the New Testament), or from the Church,
under the assistance of the same Holy Spirit, whether hy
her solemn judgment or by her ordinary and universal
magisterium ^ — to interpret these passages in that identical
sense, and to prove by all the resources of science that
sound hermeneutical laws admit of no other interpretation.
In the other passages the analogy of faith should be fol-
lowed, and Catholic doctrine, as authoritatively proposed
by the Church, should be held as the supreme law; for,
seeing that the same God is the author both of the sacred
books and of the doctrine committed to the Church, it is
clearly impossible that any teaching can, by legitimate
means, be extracted from the former which shall, in
any respect, be at variance with the latter. Hence it
follows that all interpretation is foolish or false which
either makes the sacred writers disagree one with anothei,
or is opposed to the doctrine of the Church. The professor
of Holy Scripture, therefore, amongst other recommen-
dations, must be well acquainted with the whole circle of
theologj"" and deeply read in the commentaries of the
holy Fathers and Doctors, and in other interpreters of
mark.^ This is inculcated by St. Jerome, and still more
frequently by St. Augustine, who thus justly complains:
"If there is no branch of teaching, however humble and
easy to learn, which does not require a master, what can
be a greater sign of rashness and pride than to refuse to
study the books of the divine mysteries by the help of those
who have interpreted them?" ^ The other Fathers have
said the same, and have confirmed it by their example,
for they "endeavored to acquire the understanding of
the Holy Scriptures not by their own lights and ideas
but from the writing and authority of the ancients, who,
in their turn, as we know, received the rule of interpreta-
tion in direct line from the apostles." * The holy Fathers

* Cone. Vat. sess. iii. cap. ii. de fide. * Ibid.

* Ad Honorat de util. cred. xviu 35. * Rufinus Hist. eccl. li. 9,

288 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

"to whom, after the apostles, the Church owes its growth
— ^who have planted, watered, built, governed, and cher-
ished it";^ the holy Fathers, We say, are of supreme
authority, whenever they all interpret in one and the same
manner any text of the Bible, as pertaining to the doctrine
of faith and morals; for their unanimity clearly evinces
that such interpretation has come down from the apostles
as a matter of Catholic faith. The opinion of the Fathers
is also of very great weight when they treat of these mat-
ters in their capacity of Doctors unofficially; not only
because they excel in their knowledge of revealed doctrine
and in their acquaintance with many things which are
useful in understanding the apostoUc books, but because
they are men of eminent sanctity and of ardent zeal for
the truth, on whom God has bestowed a more ample
measure of His Ught. Wherefore the expositor should
make it his duty to follow their footsteps with all rever-
ence, and to use their labors with intelUgent appreciatioa.
But he must not on that account consider that it is for-
bidden, when just cause exists, to push inquiry and exposi-
tion beyond what the Fathers have done; provided he care-
fully observes the rule so wisely laid down by St. Augus-
tine— ^not to depart from the Hteral and obvious sense, ex-
cept only where reason makes it untenable or necessity
requires ; ^ a rule to which it is the more necessary to adhere
strictly in these times, when the thirst for novelty and the
unrestrained freedom of thought make the danger of error
most real and proximate. Neither should those passages
be neglected which the Fathers have understood in an alle-
gorical or figurative sense, more especially when such in-
terpretation is justified by the literal, and when it rests on
the authority of many. For this method of interpretation
has been received by the Church from the apostles, and
has been approved by her own practice, as the holy Liturgy
attests; although it is true that the holy Fathers did not

* S. Aug. c. Julian, ii. 10, 37.

• De Gen. ad litt. Iviii. c. 7. 13.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 289

thereby pretend directly to demonstrate dogmas of faith,
but used it as a means of promoting virtue and piety, such
as, by their own experience, they knew to be most valu-
able. The authority of other Church interpreters is not
so great; but the study of Scripture has always continued
to advance in the Church, and, therefore, these commen-
taries also have their own honorable place, and are serv-
iceable in many ways for the refutation of assailants
and the explanation of difficulties. But it is most unbe-
coming to pass by, in ignorance or contempt, the excellent
work which Catholics have left in abundance, and to have
recourse to the work of non-Catholics — and to seek in
them, to the detriment of sound doctrine and often to the
peril of faith, the explanation of passages on which Catholics
long ago have successfully employed their talent and their
labor. For although the studies of non-Catholics, used
with prudence, may sometimes be of use to the Catholic
student, he should, nevertheless, bear well in mind — as
the Fathers also teach in numerous passages ^ — that the
sense of Holy Scripture can nowhere be found incorrupt
outside the Church, and cannot be expected to be found
in writers who, being without the true faith, only know
the bark of sacred Scripture, and never attain its pith.

Most desirable is it, and most essential, that the whole
teaching of theology should be pervaded and animated by
the use of the divine Word of God. That is what the
Fathers and the greatest theologians of all ages have de-
sired and reduced to practice. It is chiefly out of the
sacred writings that they endeavored to proclaim and
establish the Articles of Faith and the truths therewith
connected, and it was in them, together with divine tra-
dition, that they found the refutation of heretical error,
and the reasonableness, the true meaning, and the mutual
relation of the truths of Catholicism. Nor will any one
wonder at this who considers that the sacred books hold

' Cfr. Clem. Alex. Strom, vii. 16; Crig. de princ. iv. 8; in I.evit.
horn. 48; Tertull. de praescr, 15, seqq. ; S. Hilar. Pict. in Matth. 13, L

290 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

such an eminent position among the sources of revelation
that without their assiduous study and use theology can-
not be placed on a true footing, or treated as its dignity
demands. For although it is right and proper that stu-
dents in academies and schools should be chiefly exercised
in acquiring a scientific knowledge of dogma, by means of
reasoning from the Articles of Faith to their consequences,
according to the rules of approved and sound philosophy —
nevertheless the judicious and instructed theologian will
by no means pass by that method of doctrinal demonstra-
tion which draws its proof from the authority of the Bible;
"for theology does not receive her first principles from
any other science, but immediately from God by revela-
tion. And, therefore, she does not receive of other sciences
as from a superior, but uses them as her inferiors or hand-
maids." ^ It is this view of doctrinal teaching which is
laid down and recommended by the prince of theologians,
St. Thomas of Aquin ; ^ who moreover shows — such being
the essential character of Christian theology — how she
can defend her own principles against attack: "If the ad-
versary," he says, "do but grant any portion of the divine
revelation, we have an argument against him ; thus, against
a heretic we can employ Scripture authority, and against
those who deny one article we can use another. But if
our opponent reject divine revelation entirely, there is no
way left to prove the Articles of Faith by reasoning; we
can only solve the difficulties which are raised against
them." ' Care must be taken, then, that beginners ap-
proach the study of the Bible well prepared and furnished ;
otherwise, just hopes will be frustrated, or, perchance,
what is worse, they will unthinkingly risk the danger of
error, falling an easy prey to the sophisms and labored
3rudition of the rationalists. The best preparation will
be a conscientious application to philosophy and theology

» S. Greg. M. Moral xx. 9 (aL 11).
' Suram. Theol. p. i. q. i. a. 6 ad 2.
'Ibid. a. 8.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 291

under the guidance of St. Thomas of Aquin, and a thor-
ough training therein — as We Ourselves have elsewhere
pointed out and directed. By this means, both in biblical
studies and in that part of theology which is called positive,
they will pursue the right path and make satisfactory
progress.

To prove, to expound, to illustrate Catholic doctrine by
the legitimate and skilful interpretation of the Bible is
much; but there is a second part of the subject of equal
importance and equal difficulty — the maintenance in the
strongest possible way of its full authority. This cannot
be done completely or satisfactorily except by means of the
living and proper magisterium of the Church. The Church,
by reason of her wonderful propagation, her distinguished
sanctity, and inexhaustible fecundity in good, her Catholic
unity, and her unshaken stability, is herself a great and
perpetual motive of credibility, and an unassailable testi-
mony to her own divine mission." ^ But, since the divine
and infallible magisterium of the Church rests also on Holy
Scripture, the first thing to be done is to vindicate the
trustworthiness of sacred records, at least as human docu-
ments from which can be clearly proved, as from primi-
tive and authentic testimony, the divinity and the mission
of Christ our Lord, the institution of a hierarchical Church
and the primacy of Peter and his successors. It is most
desirable, therefore, that there should be numerous mem-
bers of the clergy well prepared to enter on a contest of
this nature, and to repulse hostile assaults, chiefly trusting
in the armor of God recommended by the Apostle,^ but
also not unaccustomed to modern methods of attack. This
is beautifully alluded to by St. John Chrysostom, when de-
scribing the duties of priests : " We must use every endeavor
that the 'Word of God may dwell in us abundantly'; ' not
merely for one kind of a fight must we be prepared — for
the contest is many-sided and the enemy is of every sort;

* Cone. Vat. sess iii. c. ii. de fide. ' Eph. vi. 13, seqq.

'ar. Coloss. ui. 16.

292 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

and they do not all use the same weapons nor make their
onset in the same way. Wherefore it is needful that the
man who has to contend against all should be acquainted
with the engines and the arts of all — that he should be at
once archer and slinger, commandant and officer, general
and private soldier, foot-soldier and horseman, skilled in
sea-fight and in siege ; for unless he knows every trick and
turn of war, the devil is well able, if only a single door be
left open, to get in his fierce bands and carry off the sheep." *
The sophisms of the enemy and his manifold arts of attack
we have already touched upon. Let us now say a word
of advice on the means of defence. The first means is the
study of the Oriental languages and of the art of criticism.
These two acquirements are in these days held in high esti-
mation, and, therefore, the clergy, by making themselves
fully acquainted with them as time and place may demand,
will the better be able to discharge their office with be-
coming credit; for they must make themselves all to all,^
always ready to satisfy every one that asketh them a reason
for the hope that is in them. ^ Hence it is most proper that
professors of sacred Scripture and theologians should
master those tongues in which the sacred books were
originally written; and it would be well that Church stu-
dents ako should cultivate them, more especially those
who aspire to academic degrees. And endeavors should
be made to establish in all academic institutions — as has
already been laudably done in many — chairs of the other
ancient languages, especially the Semitic, and of subjects
connected therewith, for the benefit, principally, of those
who are intended to profess sacred literature. These
latter, with a similar object in view, should make them-
selves well and thoroughly acquainted with the art of true
criticism. There has arisen, to the great detriment of
religion, an inept method, dignified by the name of the
'higher criticism," which pretends to judge the origin,

» De Sacerdotio iv. 4. M Cor. ix. 22. ^l Peter iii. 15.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 293

integrity and authority of each book from internal indica-
tions alone. It is clear, on the other hand, that in historical
questions, such as the origin and handing down of writings,
the witness of history is of primary importance, and that
historical investigation should be made with the utmost
care; and that in this manner internal evidence is seldom
of great value, except as confirmation. To look upon it
in any other light will be to open the door to many evil
consequences. It will make the enemies of religion much
more bold and confident in attacking and mangHng the
sacred books; and this vaunted "higher criticism" will
resolve itself into the reflection of the bias and the preju-
dice of the critics. It will not throw on the Scripture the
light which is sought, or prove of any advantage to doc-
trine; it wiU only give rise to disagreement and dissension,
those sure notes of error which the critics in question so
plentifully exhibit in their own persons; and seeing that
most of them are tainted with false philosophy and ration-
alism, it must lead to the elimination from the sacred
writings of all prophecy and miracle, and of everything
else that is outside the natural order.

In the second place, we have to contend against those
who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely
scrutinize the sacred book in order to detect the writers in
a mistake, and to take occasion to vihfy its contents. At-
tacks of this kind, bearing as they do on matters of sensible
experience, are peculiarly dangerous to the masses, and
also to the young who are beginning their literary studies;
for the young, if they lose their reverence for the Holy
Scripture on one or more points, are easily led to give up
believing in it altogether. It need not be pointed out how
the nature of science, just as it is so admirably adapted to
show forth the glorj.' of the Great Creator, provided it is
taught as it should be, so, if it be perversely imparted to
the youthful intelligence, it may prove most fatal in de-
stro3dng the principles of true philosophy and in the cor-
ruption of morality. Hence, to the professor of sacred

294 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

Scripture a knowledge of natural science will be of very
great assistance in detecting such attacks on the sacred
books, and in refuting them. There can never, indeed,
be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the
physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own
lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us,
"not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not
known as known." ^ If dissension should arise between
them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine,
for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate
to be true of physical nature we must show to be capable of
reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they as-
sert in their treatises which is contrary to these Script-
ures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either
prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events
we must, without the smallest hesitation, beUeve it to be
so." ' To understand how just is the rule here formu-
lated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers,
or, to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "who spoke
by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that
is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible
universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." '
Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature,
but rather described and dealt with things in more or less
figurative language, or in terms which were commonly
used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily
use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science.
Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what
comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way
the sacred writers — as the Angelic Doctor also reminds
us — "went by what sensibly appeared," * or put down
what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men
could understand and were accustomed to.

* In. Gen. op. iraperf. ix. 30.
» De Gen. ad litt. i. 21, 4i

» S. Aug. ib. ii. 9, 20.

* Summa Theol. p. i. q. haaa. a. 1 ad 3.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 296

The unshrinking defence of the Holy Scripture, how-
ever, does not require that we should equally uphold all
the opinions which each of the Fathers or the more recent
interpreters have put forth in explaining it; for it may be
that, in commenting on passages where physical matters
occur, they have sometimes expressed the ideas of their
own times, and thus made statements which in these days
have been abandoned as incorrect. Hence, in their inter-
pretations, we must carefully note what they lay down as
belonging to faith, or as intimately connected with faith —
what they are unanimous in. For "in those things which
do not come under the obligation of faith, the saints were
at liberty to hold divergent opinions, just as we ourselves
are," ^ according to the saying of St. Thomas. And in
another place he says most admirably: " When philosophers
are agreed upon a point, and it is not contrary to our faith,
it is safer, in my opinion, neither to lay down such a point
as a dogma of faith, even though it is perhaps so presented
by the philosophers, nor to reject it as against faith, lest we
thus give to the wise of this world an occasion of despising
our faith." ^ The Catholic interpreter, although he should
show that those facts of natural science which investigators
affirm to be now quite certain are not contrary to the Script-
ure rightly explained, must, nevertheless, always bear in
mind that much which has been held and proved as cer-
tain has afterwards been called in question and rejected.
And if writers on physics travel outside the boundaries of
their owti branch, and carry their erroneous teaching into
the domain of philosophy, let them be handed over to phil-
osophers for refutation.

The principles here laid down will apply to cognate
sciences, and especially to history. It is a lamentable fact
that there are many who with great labor carry out and
pubhsh investigations on the monuments of antiquity, the
manners and institutions of nations, and other illustrative

^ In Sent. il. DUt. q. i. a. 3. ' Opusc. x.

296 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

subjects, and whose chief purpose in all this is to find mis-
takes in the sacred writings and so to shake and weaken
their authority. Some of these writers display not only
extreme hostility but the greatest unfairness ; in their eyes
a profane book or ancient document is accepted without
hesitation, whilst the Scripture, if they only fuid in it a
suspicion of error, is set down with the slightest possible
discussion as quite untrustworthy. It is true, no doubt,
that copyists have made mistakes in the text of the Bible;
this question, when it arises, should be carefully considered
on its merits, and the fact not too easily admitted, but
only in those passages where the proof is clear. It may also
happen that the sense of a passage remains ambiguous, and
in this case good hermeneutical methods will greatly assist
in clearing up the obscurity. But it is absolutely wrong
and forbidden either to narrow inspiration to certain parts
only of Holy Scripture or to admit that the sacred waiter
has erred. For the system of those who, in order to rid
themselves of those difficulties, do not hesitate to concede
that divine inspiration regards the things of faith and
morals, and nothing beyond, because (as they wrongly
think) in a question of the truth or falsehood of a passage
we should consider not so much what God has said as the
reason and purpose which He had in mind when sa^dng it —
this system cannot be tolerated. For all the books which
the Church receives as sacred and canonical are written
wholly and entirely, with all their parts, at the dictation
of the Holy Ghost ; and so far is it from being possible that
any error can co-exist with inspiration, that inspiration
not only is essentially incompatible with error, but excludes
and rejects it as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossi-
ble that God Himself, the Supreme Truth, can utter that
which is not true. This is the ancient and unchanging
faith of the Church, solemnly defined in the Councils of
Florence and of Trent, and finally confirmed and more
expressly formulated by the Council of the Vatican. These
are the words of the last: "The books of the Old and New

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 297

Testament, whole and entire, with all their parts, as enu-
merated by the decree of the same Council (Trent) and in
the ancient Latin Vulgate, are to be received as sacred
and canonical. And the Church holds them as sacred and
canonical not because, having been composed by human
industry, they were afterwards approved by her authority,
nor only because they contain revelation without error,
but because, having been written under the inspiration
of the Holy Ghost, they have God for their Author." *
Hence, because the Holy Ghost employed men as His
instruments, we cannot, therefore, say that it was these
inspired instruments who, perchance, have fallen into
error, and not the primary author. For, by supernatural
power, He so moved and impelled them to write — He was
so present to them — that the things which He ordered,
and those only, they, first, rightly understood, then willed
faithfully to write down, and finally expressed in apt
words and with infallible truth. Otherwise, it could not
be said that He was the Author of the entire Scripture.
Such has always been the persuasion of the Fathers.
"Therefore," says St. Augustine, "since they wrote the
things which He showed and uttered to them, it cannot
be pretended that He is not the writer; for His mem-
bers executed what their head dictated." ^ And St.
Gregory the Great thus pronounces: "Most superfluous it
is to inquire who wrote these things — we loyally believe
the Holy Ghost to be the author of the Book. He wrote
it who dictated it for writing; He wrote it who inspired
its execution." ^

It follows that those who maintain that an error is pos-
sible in any genuine passage of the sacred writings either
pervert the Catholic notion of inspiration or make God
the author of such error. And so emphatically were all
the Fathers and Doctors agreed that the divine writings,
as left by the hagiographers, are free from all error, that

• Sess. iii. c. ii. de Rev. ' De consensu Evangel 1. 1, c. 35.
» Praef . in Job, n. 2.

298 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

they labored earnestly, with no less skill than reverence,
to reconcile with each other those numerous passages which
seem at variance — the very passages which in a great meas-
ure have been taken up by the "higher criticism"; for
they were unanimous in laying it down that those writings,
in their entirety and in all their parts were equally from
the afflatus of Almighty God, and that God, speaking by
the sacred writers, could not set down anything that was
not true. The words of St. Augustine to St. Jerome may
sum up what they taught: "On my own part I confess to
your charity that it is only to those books of Scripture
which are now called canonical that I have learned to pay
such honor and reverence as to beUeve most firmly that
none of their writers has fallen into any error. And if in
these books I meet anything which seems contrary to truth
I shall not hesitate to conclude either that the text is faulty,
or that the translator has not expressed the meaning of the
passage, or that I myself do not understand." ^

But to undertake fully and perfectly, and with all the
weapons of the best science, the defence of the Holy Bible
is far more than can be looked for from the exertions of
commentators and theologians alone. It is an enterprise
in which we have a right to expect the co-operation of all
those Catholics who have acquired reputation in any
branch of learning whatever. As in the past, so at the
present time, the Church is never without the graceful
support of her accomplished children; may their service
to the Faith grow and increase! For there is nothing
which We believe to be more needful than that truth should
find defenders more powerful and more numerous than
the enemies it has to face; nor is there anything which
is better calculated to impress the masses with respect for
truth than to see it boklly proclaimed by learned and dis-
tinguished men. Moreover, the bitter tongues of objectors
will be silenced, or at least they will not dare to insist so

* Ep. Ixxvii. 1, et crebrius alibi.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 299

•hamelessly that faith is the enemy of science, when they
Bee that scientific men of eminence in their profession
show towards faith the most marked honor and respect.
Seeing, then, that those can do so much for the advantage
of reUgion on whom the goodness of Abnighty God has
bestowed, together with the grace of the faith, great natural
talent, let such men, in this bitter conflict of which the
Holy Scripture is the object, select each of them the
branch of study most suitable to his circumstances, and
endeavor to excel therein, and thus be prepared to repulse
with credit and distinction the assaults on the Word of
God. And it is Our pleasing duty to give deserved praise
to a work which certain Catholics have taken up — that
is to say, the formation of societies and the contribution
of considerable sums of money for the purpose of sup-
plying studios and learned men with every kind of help and
assistance in carrying out complete studies. Truly an
excellent fashion of investing money, and well suited to
the times in which we live! The less hope of pubhc pat-
ronage there is for Cathohc study, the more ready and the
more abundant should be the liberality of private persons
— those to whom God has given riches thus willingly
making use of their means to safeguard the treasure of
His revealed doctrine.

In order that all these endeavors and exertions may
really prove advantageous to the cause of the Bible, let
scholars keep steadfastly to the principles which We
have in this Letter laid down. Let them loyally hold that
God, the Creator and Ruler of all things, is also the Author
of the Scriptures — and that, therefore, nothing can be
proved either by physical science or archaeology which can
really contradict the Scriptures. If, then, apparent con-
tradiction be met with, every effort should be made to
remove it. Judicious theologians and commentators
should be consulted as to what is the true or most probable
meaning of the passage in discussion, and hostile argu-
ments should be carefully weighed. Even if the difficulty

300 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

is after all not cleared up and the discrepancy seems to
remain, the contest must not be abandoned ; truth cannot
contradict truth, and we may be sure that some mistake
has been made either in the interpretation of the sacred
words or in the polemical discussion itself; and if no such
mistake can be detected, we must then suspend judgment
for the time being. There have been objections without
number perseveringly directed against the Scripture for
many a long year, which have been proved to be futile
and are now never heard of; and not infrequently inter-
pretations have been' placed on certain passages of Script-
ure (not belonging to the rule of faith or morals) which
have been rectified by more careful investigations. As
time goes on, mistaken views die and disappear; but truth
remaineth and groweth stronger forever and ever} Where-
fore, as no one should be so presumptuous as to think that
he understands the whole of the Scripture, in which St.
Augustine himself confessed that there was more that he
did not know than that he knew,^ so, if he should come on
anything that seems incapable of solution, he must take
to heart the cautious rule of the same holy doctor: "It
is better even to be oppressed by unknown but useful
signs than to interpret them uselessly, and thus to throw
off the yoke only to be caught in the trap of error." '

As to those who pursue the subsidiary studies of which
We have spoken, if they honestly and modestly follow
the counsels We have given — if by their pen and their voice
they make their studies profitable against the enemies of
truth, and useful in saving the young from the loss of their
faith — they may justly congratulate themselves on their
worthy service to the sacred writings, and on affording to
Catholicism that assistance which the Church has a right
to expect from the piety and learning of her children.

Such, Venerable Brethren, are the admonitions and the
instructions which, by the help of God, We have thought

* 3 Esdr. iv. 38. ' Ad lanuar. ep. Iv. 21.

' De doctr. chr. iii. 9, 18.

THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 301

it well, at the present moment, to offer to you on the study

of Holy Scripture. It will now be your province to see

that what We have said be observed and put in practice

with all due reverence and exactness; that so We may

prove our gratitude to God for the communication to

man of the words of His wisdom, and that all the good

results so much to be desired may be realized, especially

as they afTect the training of the students of the Church,

which is our own great solicitude and the Church's hope.

Exert yourselves with willing alacrity, and use your

authority and your persuasion in order that these studies

may be held in just regard and may flourish in seminaries

and in educational institutions which are under your

Jurisdiction. Let them flourish in completeness and in

happy success, under the direction of the Church, in

accordance with the salutary teaching and example of

the holy Fathers, and the laudable traditions of antiquity,

and, as time goes on, let them be widened and extended

as the interests and glory of truth may require — the

interests of that Catholic truth which comes from above,

the never-faihng source of man's salvation. Finally, We

admonish with paternal love all students and ministers

of the Church always to approach the sacred writings

with reverence and piety; for it is impossible to attain

to the profitable understanding thereof unless the arrogance

of "earthly" science be laid aside, and there be excited

in the heart the holy desire for that wisdom " which is

from above." In this way the intelligence which is once

admitted to these sacred studies, and thereby illuminated

and strengthened, will acquire a marvellous facility in

detecting and avoiding the fallacies of human science,

and in gathering and using for eternal salvation all that

is valuable and precious; whilst, at the same time, the

heart will grow warm, and will strive, with ardent longing,

to advance in virtue and in divine love. Blessed are they

who examine His testimonies; they shall seek Him with

their whole heart}

* Ps. cxviii. 2.

302 THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

And now, filled with hope in the divine assistance, and
trusting to your pastoral solicitude — as a pledge of heavenly
grace, and a sign of Our special good-wiU — to you all, and
to the clergy, and to the whole flock entrusted to you,
We lovingly impart in Our Lord the ApostoUc Benedic-
tion.

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

Encyclical Letter Prceclara Gratulationis Puhlicce^ June 20,

1894.

The splendid tokens of public rejoicing which have
come to Us from all sides in the whole course of last year,
to commemorate Our Episcopal Jubilee, and which were
lately crowned by the remarkable devotion of the Spanish
nation, have afforded Us special joy, inasmuch as the
unity of the Church and the admirable adhesion of her
members to the Sovereign Pontiff have shone forth in this
perfect agreement of concurring sentiments. During those
days it seemed as if the Catholic worid, forgetful of every-
thing else, had centred its gaze and all its thoughts upon
the Vatican.

The special missions sent by kings and princes, the many
pilgrimages, the letters We received so full of affectionate
feeling, the sacred services — everything clearly brought
out the fact that all Catholics are of one mind and of one
heart in their veneration for the Apostolic See. And this
was all the more pleasing and agreeable to Us, that it is
entirely in conformity with Our intent and with Our
endeavors. For, indeed, well acquainted with Our times,
and mindful of the duties of 0\ir ministry, We have con-
stantly sought during the whole course of Our Pontificate
and striven, as far as it was possible, by teaching and
action, to bind every nation and people more closely to
Us, and make manifest everywhere the salutary influence
of the See of Rome. Therefore do We most earnestly
offer thanks in the first place to the goodness of God, by
whose help and bounty We have been preserved to attain

SOS

304 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

Our great age; and then, next, to all the princes and
rulers, to the bishops and clergy, and to as many as have
co-operated by such repeated tokens of piety and rever-
ence to honor Our character and office, while affording
Us personally such seasonable consolation.

A great deal, however, has been wanting to the entire
fulness of that consolation. Amidst these very manifesta-
tions of public joy and reverence Our thoughts went out
towards the immense multitude of those who are strangers
to the gladness that filled all Cathohc hearts : some because
they lie in absolute ignorance of the Gospel; others
because they dissent from the Catholic belief, though they
bear the name of Christians.

This thought has been, and is, a source of deep concern
to Us ; for it is impossible to think of such a large portion
of mankind deviating, as it were, from the right path, as
they move away from Us, and not experience a sentiment
of innermost grief.

But since We hold upon this earth the place of God
Almighty, who will have all men to be saved and to come
to the knowledge of the truth, and now that Our advanced
age and the bitterness of anxious cares urge Us on towards
the end common to every mortal, We feel drawn to follow
the example of Our Redeemer and Master, Jesus Christ,
who, when about to return to heaven, implored of God,
His Father, in earnest prayer, that His disciples and fol-
fowers should be of one mind and of one heart: / pray
. . . that they all may be one, as thou Father in Me, and I
in Thee: that they also may he one in Us. And as this
divine prayer and supplication does not include only the
souls who then believed in Jesus Christ, but also every one of
those who were henceforth to believe in Him, this prayer
holds out to Us no indifferent reason for confidently
expressing Our hopes, and for making all possible en-
deavors in order that the men of every race and clime
should be called and moved to embrace the imity of divine
faith.

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 306

Pressed on to Our intent by charity, that hastens fastest
there where the need is greatest, We direct Our first
thoughts to those most unfortunate of all nations who
have never received the light of the Gospel, or who, after
having possessed it, have lost it through neglect or the
vicissitudes of time: hence do they ignore God, and live
in the depths of error. Now, as all salvation comes from
Jesus Christ — for there is no other name under heaven given
to men whereby we must he saved — Our ardent desire is that
the most holy name of Jesus should rapidly pervade and
fill every land.

And here, indeed, is a duty which the Church, faithful
to the divine mission entrusted to her, has never neglected.
What has been the object of her labors for more than
nineteen centuries? Is there any other work she has
undertaken with greater zeal and constancy than that of
bringing the nations of the earth to the truth and
principles of Christianity? To-day, as ever, by Our
authority, the heralds of the Gospel constantly cross the
seas to reach the farthest corners of the earth; and We
pray God daily that in His goodness He may deign to in-
crease the number of His ministers who are really worthy
of this apostolate, and who are ready to sacrifice their
convenience, their health, and their very Hfe, if need be,
in order to extend the frontiers of the kingdom of Christ.

Do Thou, above all, O Saviour and Father of mankind,
Christ Jesus, hasten and do not delay to bring about
what Thou didst once promise to do — that when lifted up
from the earth Thou wouldst draw all things to Thyself.
Come, then, at last, and manifest Thyself to the immense
multitude of souls who have not felt, as yet, the ineffable
blessings which Thou hast earned for men with Thy blood;
rouse those who are sitting in darkness and in the shadow
of death, that, enlightened by the rays of Thy wisdom
and virtue, in Thee and by Thee "they may be made
perfect in one."

As We consider the mystery of this imity We see before

306 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

Us all the countries which have long since passed, by the
mercy of God, from timeworn error to the wisdom of
the Gospel. Nor could We, indeed, recall anything more
pleasing or better calculated to extol the work of divine
Providence than the memory of the days of yore, when
the faith that had come down from heaven was looked
upon as the common inheritance of one and all; when
civilized nations, separated by distance, character and
habits, in spite of frequent disagreements and warfare
on other points, were united by Christian faith in all that
concerned religion. The recollection of that time causes
Us to regret all the more deeply that as the ages rolled
by the waves of suspicion and hatred arose, and great
and flourishing nations were dragged away, in an evil
hour, from the bosom of the Roman Church. In spite
of that, however. We trust in the mercy of God's almighty
power, in Him who alone can fix the hour of His benefits
and who has power to incline man's will as He pleases;
and We turn to those same nations, exhorting and be-
seeching them with fatherly love to put an end to their
dissensions and return again to unity.

First of all, then, We cast an affectionate look upon the
East, from whence in the beginning came forth the salva-
tion of the world. Yes, and the yearning desire of Our
heart bids us conceive and hope that the day is not far
distant when the Eastern Churches, so illustrious in their
ancient faith and glorious past, will return to the fold they
have abandoned. We hope it all the more, that the dis-
tance separating them from Us is not so great: nay, with
some few exceptions, we agree so entirely on other heads
that, in defence of the Catholic faith, we often have re-
course to reasons and testimony borrowed from the teach-
ing, the rites, and customs of the East.

The principal subject of contention is the primacy of
the Roman Pontiff. But let them look back to the early
years of their existence, let them consider the sentiments
entertained by their forefathers, and examine what the

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 307

oldest traditions testify, and it will, indeed, become evi-
dent to them that Christ's divine utterance, Thou art
Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church, has un-
doubtedly been realized in the Roman Pontiffs. Many
of these latter in the first ages of the Church were chosen
from the East, and foremost among them Anacletus,
Evaristus, Anicetus, Eleutherius, Zosimus, and Agatho;
and of these a great number, after governing the
Church in wisdom and sanctity, consecrated their min-
istry with the shedding of their blood. The time, the rea-
sons, the promoters of the unfortunate division, are well
known. Before the day when man separated what God
had joined together, the name of the ApostoHc See was
held in reverence by all the nations of the Christian world :
and the East, hke the West, agreed without hesitation in
its obedience to the Pontiff of Rome, as the legitimate
successor of St. Peter, and, therefore, the Vicar of Christ
here on earth.

And, accordingly, if we refer to the beginning of the
dissension, we shall see that Photius himself was careful
to send his advocates to Rome on the matters that con-
cerned him; and Pope Nicholas I. sent his legates to Con-
stantinople from the Eternal City, without the slightest
opposition, "in order to examine the case of Ignatius the
Patriarch with all dihgence, and to bring back to the
ApostoUc See a full and accurate report"; so that the his-
tory of the whole negotiation is a manifest confirmation
of the primacy of the Roman See with which the dissen-
sion then began. Finally, in two great Councils, the
second of Lyons and that of Florence, Latins and Greeks,
as is notorious, easily agreed, and all unanimously pro-
claimed as dogma the supreme power of the Roman
Pontiffs.

We have recalled these things intentionally, for they con-
stitute an invitation to peace and reconcihation ; and with
all the more reason that in Our own days it would seem
as if there were a more conciliatory spirit towards Catholics

308 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

on the part of the Eastern Churches, and even some degree
of kindly feehng. To mention an instance, those senti-
ments were lately made manifest when some of Our faith-
ful travelled to the East on a holy enterprise, and received
so many proofs of courtesy and good-will.

Therefore, Our mouth is open to you, to you all of Greek
or other Oriental rites who are separated from the Catholic
Church. We earnestly desire that each and every one of
you should meditate upon the words, so full of gravity
and love, addressed by Bessarion to your forefathers:
"What answer shall we give to God when He comes to
ask why we have separated from our brethren: to Him
who, to unite us and bring us into one fold, came down
from heaven, was incarnate, and was crucified? What
will our defence be in the eyes of posterity? Oh, my
Venerable Fathers, we must not suffer this to be, we must
not entertain this thought, we must not thus so ill provide
for ourselves and for our brethren."

Weigh carefully in your minds and before God the nature
of Our request. It is not for any human motive, but
impelled by divine charity and a desire for the salvation
of all, that We advise the reconcihation and union with
the Church of Rome; and We mean a perfect and com-
plete union, such as could not subsist in any way if noth-
ing else was brought about but a certain kind of agreement
in the tenets of belief and an intercourse of fraternal love.
The true union between Christians is that which Jesus
Christ, the Author of the Church, instituted and desired,
and which consists in a imity of faith and a unity of gov-
ernment.

Nor is there any reason for you to fear on that account
that We or any of Our successors will ever diminish your
rights, the privileges of your patriarchs, or the established
ritual of any one of your churches. It has been and
always will be the intent and tradition of the Apostolic
See, to make a large allowance, in all that is right and
good, for the primitive traditions and special customs of

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 309

every nation. On the contrary, if you re-establish union
vnth Us, you will see how, by God's bounty, the glory
and dignity of your churches will be remarkably increased.
May God, then, in His goodness, hear the prayer that you
yourselves address to Him: "Make the schisms of the
churches cease," and " Assemble those who are dispersed,
bring back those who err, and unite them to Thy Holy
Cathohc and Apostohc Church." May you thus return
to that one holy Faith which has been handed down both
to Us and to you from time immemorial; which your fore-
fathers preserved untainted, and which was enhanced
by the rival splendor of the virtues, the great genius, and
the sublime learning of St. Athanasius and St. Basil,
St. Gregory of Nazianzum and St. John Chrysostom, the
two saints who bore the name of Cyril, and so many other
great men whose glory belongs as a conmion inheritance
to the East and to the West.

Suffer that We should address you more particularly,
nations of the Slavonic race, you whose glorious name
and deeds are attested by many an ancient record. You
know full well how much the Slavs are indebted to the merits
of St. Cyril and St. Methodius, to whose memory We Our-
selves have rendered due honor only a few years ago. Their
virtues and their labors were to great numbers of your
race the source of civilization and salvation. And hence
the admirable interchange, which existed for so long be-
tween the Slavonic nations and the Pontiffs of Rome,
of favors on the one side and of filial devotion on the other.
If in unhappy times many of your forefathers were sepa-
rated from the Faith of Rome, consider now what priceless
benefits a return of unity would bring to you. The Church
is anxious to welcome you also to her arms, that she
may give you manifold aids to salvation, prosperity, and
grandeur.

With no less affection do We now look upon the nations
who, at a more recent date, were separated from the Roman
Church by an extraordinary revolution of things and cir-

310 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

cumstances. Let them forget the various events of times
gone by, let them raise their thoughts far above all that
is human, and seeking only truth and salvation, reflect
within their hearts upon the Church as it was constituted
by Christ. If they will but compare that Church with
their own communions, and consider what the actual state
of religion is in these, they will easily acknowledge that,
forgetful of their early history, they have drifted away,
on many and important points, into the novelty of various
errors; nor will they deny that of what may be called the
patrimony of truth, which the authors of those innova-
tions carried away with them in their desertion, there now
scarcely remains to them any article of belief that is really
certain and supported by authority.

Nay, more, things have already come to such a pass
that many do not even hesitate to root up the very foun-
dation upon which alone rests all religion, and the hope
of men, to wit, the divine nature of Jesus Christ, our
Saviour. And again, whereas formerly they used to assert
that the books of the Old and the New Testament were
written under the inspiration of God, they now deny
them that authority: this, indeed, was an inevitable con-
sequence when they granted to all the right of pri-s'ate
interpretation. Hence, too, the acceptance of individual
conscience as the sole guide and rule of conduct to the
exclusion of any other: hence those conflicting opinions
and numerous sects that fall away so often into the doc-
trines of Naturalism and Rationalism.

Therefore it is, that having lost all hope of an agree-
ment in their persuasions, they now proclaim and recom-
mend a union of brotherly love. And rightly, too, no
doubt, for we should all be united by the bond of mutual
charity. Our Lord Jesus Christ enjoined it most emphati-
cally, and wished that this love of one another should be
the mark of His disciples. But how can hearts be united
in perfect charity where minds do not agree in faith?

It is on this account that many of those We allude to

THE HEUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 311

men of sound judgment and seeking after truth, have
looked to the Cathohc Church for the sure way of salva-
tion; for they clearly understand that they could never
be united to Jesus Christ as their head if they were not
members of His body, wliich is the Church; nor really
acquire the true Christian faith if they rejected the legiti-
mate teaching confided to Peter and his successors. Such
men as these have recognized in the Church of Rome the
form and image of the true Church, which is clearlyt made
manifest by the marks that God, her Author, placed upon
her: and not a few who were possessed with penetrating
judgment and a special talent for historical research, have
shown forth in their remarkable writings the uninterrupted
succession of the Church of Rome from the apostles, the
integrity of her doctrine, and the consistency of her rule
and discipline.

With the example of such men before you, Our heart
appeals to you even more than Our words: to you, Our
Brethren, who for three centuries and more differ from
Us on Christian faith; and to you all likewise, who in
later times, for any reason whatsoever, have turned away
from Us: Let us all meet in the unity of faith and of the
knowledge of the Son of God. Suffer that We should invite
you to the unity which has ever existed in the Catholic
Church and can never fail ; suffer that We should lovingly
hold out Our hand to you. The Church, as the common
mother of all, has long been calling you back to her; the
Catholics of the world await you with brotherly love,
that you may render holy worship to God together with
us, united in perfect charity by the profession of one
Gospel, one faith, and one hope.

To complete the harmony of this most desired unity,
it remains for Us to address all those throughout the world
whose salvation has long been the object of Our thoughts
and watchful cares; We mean Catholics, whom the pro-
fession of the Roman faith, while it renders them obedient
to the Apostolic See, preserves in union with Jesus Christ

312 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

There is no need to exhort them to true and holy unity,
since through the divine goodness they already possess it;
nevertheless, they must be admonished, lest under pres-
sure of the growing perils on all sides around them, through
negUgence or indolence they should lose this great blessing
of God. For this purpose, let them take this rule of
thought and action, as the occasion may require, from
those instructions which at other times We have addressed
to Catholic peoples, either collectively or individually; and
above all, let them lay down for themselves as a supreme
law, to yield obedience in all things to the teaching and
authority of the Church, in no narrow or mistrustful
spirit, but with their whole soul and promptitude of will.

On this account let them consider how injurious to
Christian unity is that error, which in various forms of
opinion has ofttimes obscured, nay, even destroyed
the true character and idea of the Church. For by the
will and ordinance of God, its Founder, it is a society
perfect in its kind, whose office and mission it is to school
mankind in the precepts and teachings of the Gospel,
and by safeguarding the integrity of moral and the exer-
cise of Christian virtue, to lead men to that happiness
which is held out to every one in heaven. And since it
is, as we have said, a perfect society, therefore it is endowed
with a living power and efficacy which is not derived from
any external source, but in virtue of the ordinance of God
and its own constitution, inherent in its very nature; for
the same reason it has an inborn power of making laws,
and justice requires that in its exercise it should be
dependent on no one; it must likewise have freedom in
other matters appertaining to its rights.

But this freedom is not of a kind to occasion rivalry
or envy, for the Church does not covet power, nor is she
urged on b)'' any selfish desire; but this one thing she
does wish, this only does she seek, to preserve amongst
men the duties which virtue imposes, and by this means
and in this way to provide for their everlasting welfare.

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 313

Therefore is she wont to be yielding and indulgent as a
mother; yea, it not unfrequently happens that in making
large concessions to the exigencies of States, she refrains
from the exercise of her own rights, as the compacts often
concluded with civil governments abundantly testify.

Nothing is more foreign to her disposition than to en-
croach on the rights of civil power; but the civil power in
its turn must respect the rights of the Church, and beware of
arrogating them in any degree to itself. Now, what is the
ruling spirit of the times when actual events and circum-
stances are taken into account? No other than this:
it has been the fashion to regard the Church with sus-
picion, to despise and hate and spitefully calumniate
her; and, more intolerable still, men strive with might
and main to bring her under the sway of civil govern-
ments. Hence it is that her property has been plundered
and her liberty curtailed: hence again, that the training
of her priesthood has been beset with difficulties; that
laws of exceptional rigor have been passed against her
clergy; that religious orders, those excellent safeguards
of Christianity, have been suppressed and placed under
a ban ; in a word, the principles and practice of the regaUsts
have been renewed with increased virulence.

Such a policy is a violation of the most sacred rights
of the Church, and it breeds enormous evils to States,
for the very reason that it is in open conflict with the
purposes of God. When God, in His most wise provi-
dence, placed over human society both temporal and
spiritual authority, He intended them to remain distinct
indeed, but by no means disconnected and at war with
each other. On the contrary, both the will of God and
the common weal of human society imperatively require
that the civil power should be in accord with the ecclesi-
astical in its rule and administration.

Hence the State has its own peculiar rights and duties,
the Church hkewise has hers; but it is necessary that
each should be united with the other in the bonds of con-

314 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

cord. Thus will it come about that the close mutual
relations of Church and State will be freed from the pres-
ent turmoil, which for manifold reasons is ill-advised and
most distressing to all well-disposed persons; furthermore,
it will be brou^t to pass that, without confusion or sepa-
ration of the peculiar interests of each, the people will
render to Ccesar the things that are Ccesar's, and to God the
things that are God's.

There is Hkewise a great danger threatening unity on
the part of that association which goes by the name of
the society of Freemasons, whose fatal influence for a
long time past oppresses CathoUc nations in particular.
Favored by the agitations of the times, and waxing inso-
lent in its power and resources and success, it strains
every nerve to consolidate its sway and enlarge its sphere.
It has already sallied forth from its hiding-places, where
it hatched its plots, into the throng of cities, and as if to
defy the Almighty, has set up its throne in this very city
of Rome, the capital of the Catholic world. But what
is most disastrous is, that wherever it has set its foot it
penetrates into all ranks and departments of the common-
wealth, in the hope of obtaining at last supreme control.
This is, indeed, a great calamity: for its depraved princi-
ples and iniquitous designs are well known. Under the
pretence of vindicating the rights of man and of re-
constituting society, it attacks Christianity; it rejects
revealed doctrine, denounces practices of piety, the divine
sacraments, and every sacred thing as superstition; it
strives to eliminate the Christian character from mar-
riage and the family and the education of youth, and from
every form of instruction, whether pubUc or private, and
to root out from the minds of men all respect for authority,
whether human or divine. On its own part, it preaches
the worship of nature, and maintains that by the principles
of nature are truth and probity and justice to be meas-
ured and regulated. In this way, as is quite evident, man
is being driven to adopt customs and habits of life akin

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 315

to those of the heathen, only more corrupt in proportion
as the incentives to sin are more numerous.

Although We have spoken on this subject in the strong-
est terms before, yet We are led by Our ApostoUc watch-
fulness to urge it once more, and We repeat Our warning
again and again, that in face of such an eminent peril, no
precaution, howsoever great, can be looked upon as suffi-
cient. May God in His mercy bring to naught their
impious designs; nevertheless, let all Christians know
and understand that the shameful yoke of Freemasonry
must be shaken off once and for all; and let them be
the first to shake it off who are most galled by its oppres-
sion— the men of Italy and of France. With what weapons
and by what method this may best be done We Ourselves
have already pointed out: the victory cannot be doubtful
to those who trust in that leader whose divine words still
remain in all their force : / have overcome the world.

Were this twofold danger averted, and govermnent
and States restored to the unity of faith, it is wonderful
what efficacious remedies for evils and abundant store of
benefits would ensue. We will touch upon the principal
ones.

The first regards the dignity and office of the Church.
She would receive that honor which is her due and she
would go on her way, free from envy and strong in her
liberty, as the minister of Gospel truth and grace to the
notable welfare of States. For as she has been given by
God as a teacher and guide to the human race, she can
contribute assistance which is pecuharly adapted to direct
even the most radical transformations of time to the com-
mon good, to solve the most compHcated questions, and
to promote uprightness and justice, which are the most
sohd foundations of the conmionwealth.

Moreover there would be a marked increase of imion
among the nations, a thing most desirable to ward off the
horrors of war.
We behold the condition of Europe. For many years

316 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

past peace has been rather an appearance than a reality.
Possessed with mutual suspicions, almost all the nations
are \'ying with one another in equipping theniiselves "with
military armaments. Inexperienced youths are removed
from parental direction and control, to be thrown amid
the dangers of the soldier's life; robust young men are
taken from agriculture or ennobling studies or trade or
the arts to be put under arms. Hence the treasures of
States are exhausted b)'^ the enormous expenditure, the
national resources are frittered away, and private for-
tunes impaired ; and this, as it were, amied peace, which
now prevails, cannot last much longer. Can this be the
normal condition of human society? Yet we caimot es-
cape from this situation, and obtain true peace, except
by the aid of Jesus Christ. For to repress ambition and
covetousness and envy — the chief instigators of war —
nothing is more fitted than the Christian virtues and, in
particular, the virtue of justice; for, by its exercise, both
the law of nations and the faith of treaties may be main-
tained inviolate, and the bonds of brotherhood continue
unbroken, if men are but convinced that justice exalteth a
nation.

As in its external relations, so in the internal hfe of the
State itself, the Christian virtues will provide a guarantee
of the commonweal much more sure and stronger far than
any which laws or armies can afford. For there is no one
who does not see that the dangers to public security and
order are daily on the increase, since seditious societies
continue to conspire for the overthrow and ruin of States,
as the frequency of their atrocious outrages testifies.

There are two questions, forsooth — the one called the
social, and other the political question — ^which are discussed
with the greatest vehemence. Both of them, without
doubt, are of the last importance, and, though praise-
worthy efforts have been put forth, in studies and meas-
ures and experiments for their wise and just solution,
yet nothing could contribute more to this purpose than

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 317

that the minds of men in general should be imbued with
right sentiments of duty from the internal principle of
Christian faith. We treated expressly of the social ques-
tion in this sense a short time ago, from the standpoint
of principles drawn from the Gospel and natural reason.

As regards the political question, which aims at recon-
ciling liberty with authority — two things which many
confound in theory, and separate too widely in practice — •
most efficient aid may be derived from the Christian
philosophy. For, when this point has been settled and
recognized by common agreement, that, whatsoever the
form of government, the authority is from God, reason
at once perceives that in some there is a legitimate right
to command, in others the corresponding duty to obey,
and that without prejudice to their dignity, since obedi-
ence is rendered to God rather than to man; and God has
denounced the most rigorous judgment against those in
authority, if they fail to represent Him with uprightness
and justice. Then the liberty of the individual can
afford ground of suspicion or envy to no one; since, with-
out injury to any, his conduct will be guided by truth
and rectitude and whatever is aUied to public order.
Lastly, if it be considered what influence is possessed by
the Church, the mother of and peacemaker between
rulers and peoples, whose mission it is to help them both
with her authority and counsel, then it will be most mani-
fest how much it concerns the commonweal that all
nations should resolve to unite in the same behef and
the same profession of the Christian faith.

With these thoughts in Gin: mind and ardent yearnings
in Our heart, We see from afar what would be the new
order of things that would arise upon the earth, and
nothing could be sweeter to Us than the contemplation
of the benefits that would flow from it. It can hardly be
imagined what immediate and rapid progress would be
made all over the earth, in all manner of greatness and
prosperity, wdth the establishment of tranquilhty and

318 THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM.

peace, the promotion of studies, the founding and the
multiplying on Christian lines according to Our directions,
of associations for the cultivators of soil, for workmen and
tradesmen, through whose agency rapacious usury would
be put down, and a large field opened up for useful labors.

And these abundant benefits would not be confined
within the limits of civilized nations, but, Hke an over-
charged river, would flow far and wide. It must be re-
membered, as we observed at the outset, that an immense
number of races have been waiting, all through the long
ages, to receive the Hght of truth and civilization. Most
certainly, the counsels of God with regard to the eternal
salvation of peoples are far removed above the under-
standing of man; yet if miserable superstition still pre-
vails in so many parts of the world, the blame must be
attributed in no small measure to religious dissensions.
For, as far as it is given to human reason to judge from
the nature of events, this seems without doubt to be the
mission assigned by God to Europe, to go on by degrees
carrying Christian civilization to every portion of the
earth. The beginnings and first growth of this great
work, which sprang from the labors of former centuries,
were rapidly receiving large development, when all of a
sudden the discord of the sixteenth century broke out.
Christendom was torn with quarrels and dissensions,
Europe exhausted with contests and wars, and the sacred
missions felt the baneful influence of the times. While
the causes of dissension still remain, what wonder is it that
so large a portion of mankind is held enthralled with
barbarous customs and insane rites?

Let us one and all, then, for the sake of the common
welfare, labor with equal assiduity to restore the ancient
concord. In order to bring about this concord, and
spread abroad the benefits of the Christian revelation,
the present is the most seasonable time; for never before
have the sentiments of human brotherhood penetrated
so deeply into the souls of men, and never in any age has

THE REUNION OF CHRISTENDOM. 319

man been seen to seek out his fellowmen more eagerly
in order to know them better and to help them. Immense
tracts of land and sea are traversed with incredible rapidity,
and thus extraordinary advantages are afforded not only
for commerce and scientific investigations but also for
the propagation of the word of God from the rising of
the sun to the going down of the same.

We are weU aware of the long labors involved in the
restoration of that order of things which We desire; and
it may be that there are those who consider that We are
far too sanguine and look for things that are rather too
be wished for than expected. But We unhesitatingly
place all Our hope and confidence in the Saviour of man-
kind, Jesus Christ, well remembering what great things
have been achieved in times past by the folly of the Cross
and its preaching, to the astonishment and confusion of
the vnsdom of the world. We beg of princes and rulers of
States, appealing to their statesmanship and earnest
sohcitude for the people, to weigh Our counsels in the
balance of truth and second them with their authority
and favor. If only a portion of the looked-for results
should come about, it will cause no inconsiderable boon
in the general decadence, when the intolerable evils of
the present day bring with them the dread of further
evils in days to come.

The last years of the past century left Europe worn out
with disasters and panic-stricken with the turmoils of
revolution. And why should not our present century,
which is now hastening to its close, by a reversion of
circumstances bequeath to mankind the pledges of con-
cord, with the prospects of the great benefits which are
bound up in the unity of the Christian faith?

May God, who is rich in mercy, and in whose power are
the times and moments, grant Our wishes and desires, and
in His great goodness, hasten the fulfilment of that divine
promise of Jesus Christ: There will be one Fold and one
Shepherd.

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.
Encyclical Letter Longinque Oceani, Jamuiry 6, 1895.

We traverse in spirit and thought the wide expanse of
ocean; and although We have at other times addressed
you in writing — chiefly when We directed Encyclical
Letters to the bishops of the Catholic world — ^yet have We
now resolved to speak to you separately, trusting that
We shall be, God willing, of some assistance to the Catholic
cause amongst you. To this We apply Ourselves with the
utmost zeal and care ; because We highly esteem and love
exceedingly the young and vigorous American nation,
in which We plainly discern latent forces for the advance-
ment ahke of civilization and of Christianity.

Not long ago, when your whole nation, as was fitting,
celebrated, with grateful recollection and every manifes-
tation of joy, the completion of the fourth century since
the discovery of America, We, too, commemorated to-
gether with you that most auspicious event, sharing in
your rejoicings with equal good-will. Nor were We on
that occasion content with offering prayers at a distance
for your welfare and greatness. It was Our wish to be
in some manner present with you in your festivities. Hence
We cheerfully sent one who should represent Our person.
Not without good reason did We take part in your cele-
bration. For when America was, as yet, but a new-bom
babe, uttering in its cradle its first feeble cries, the Church
took it to her bosom and motherly embrace. Columbus,
as We have elsewhere expressly shown, sought, as the
primary fruit of his voyages and labors, to open a path-

320

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 321

way for the Christian faith into new lands and new seas.
Keeping this thought constantly in view, his first solici-
tude, wherever he disembarked, was to plant upon the
shore the sacred emblem of the cross. Wherefore, like as
the Ark of Noe, surmounting the overflowing waters, bore
the seed of Israel together with the remnants of the human
race, even thus did the barks launched by Columbus upon
the ocean carry into regions beyond the seas as well the
germs of mighty States as the principles of the Catholic
religion.

This is not the place to give a detailed account of what
thereupon ensued. Very rapidly did the light of the Gos-
pel shine upon the savage tribes discovered by the Ligu-
rian. For it is sufficiently well known how many of the
children of Francis, as well as of Dominic and of Loyola,
were accustomed during the two following centuries to
voyage thither for this purpose; how they cared for the
colonies brought over from Europe; but primarily and
chiefly how they converted the natives from superstition
to Christianity, sealing their labors in many instances
with the testimony of their blood. The names newly
given to so many of your towns and rivers and mountains
and lakes teach and clearly witness how deeply your
beginnings were marked with the footprints of the Cath-
olic Church.

Nor, perchance, did the fact which We now recall take
place without some design of divine Providence. Pre-
cisely at the epoch when the American colonies, having,
with Catholic aid, achieved Hberty and independence,
coalesced into a constitutional Republic the ecclesiastical
hierarchy was happily established amongst you; and at
the very time when the popular suffrage placed the great
Washington at the helm of the Republic, the first bishop
was set by apostolic authority over the American Church.
The well-knowTi friendship and familiar intercourse which
subsisted between these two men seems to be an evidence
that the United States ought to be conjoined in concord

322 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

and amity with the Catholic Church. And not without
cause; for without morality the State cannot endure —
a truth which that illustrious citizen of yours, whom We
have just mentioned, with a keenness of insight worthy
of his genius and statesmanship perceived and proclaimed.
But the best and strongest support of morality is religion.
She, by her very nature, guards and defends all the prin-
ciples on which duties are founded, and, setting before
us the motives most powerful to influence us, commands
us to live virtuously and forbids us to transgress. Now
what is the Church other than a legitimate society, founded
by the will and ordinance of Jesus Christ for the preserva-
tion of moraUty and the defence of reUgion? For this
reason have We repeatedly endeavored, from the summit
of the pontifical dignity, to inculcate that the Church,
whilst directly and immediately aiming at the salvation
of souls and the beatitude which is to be attained in
heaven, is yet, even in the order of temporal things, the
fountain of blessings so numerous and great that they
could not have been greater or more numerous had the
original purpose of her institution been the pursuit of
happiness during the hfe which is spent on earth.

That your Republic is progressing and developing by
giant strides is patent to all; and this holds good in
religious matters also. For even as your cities, in the
course of one century, have made a marvellous increase
in wealth and power, so do we behold the Church, from
scant and slender beginnings, grown with rapidity to be
great and exceedingly flourishing. Now if, on the one
hand, the increased riches and resources of your cities are
justly attributed to the talents and active industry of the
American people, on the other hand, the prosperous con-
dition of Catholicity must be ascribed, first indeed, to
the virtue, the ability, and the prudence of the bishops
and clergy; but in no slight measure also, to the faith
and generosity of the Cathohc laity. Thus, while the
different classes exerted their best energies, you were

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 323

enabled to erect unnumbered religious and useful institu-
tions, sacred edifices, schools for the instruction of youth,
colleges for the higher branches, homes for the poor,
hospitals for the sick, and convents and monasteries.
As for what more closely touches spiritual interests,
which are based upon the exercise of Christian virtues,
many facts have been brought to Our notice, whereby We
are animated with hope and filled with joy, namely, that
the numbers of the secular and regular clergy are steadily
augmenting, that pious sodalities and confraternities are
held in esteem, that the Catholic parochial schools, the
Sunday-schools for imparting Christian doctrine, and
summer schools are in a flourishing condition; moreover,
associations for mutual aid, for the relief of the indigent,
for the promotion of temperate living, add to all this the
many evidences of popular piety.

The main factor, no doubt, in bringing things into this
happy state were the ordinances and decrees of your
synods, especially of those which in more recent times
were convened and confirmed by the authority of the
Apostolic See. But, moreover (a fact which it gives
pleasure to acknowledge), thanks are due to the equity
of the laws which obtain in America and to the customs
of the well-ordered Republic. For the Church amongst
you, unopposed by the Constitution and government of
your nation, fettered by no hostile legislation, protected
against violence by the common laws and the impartiality
of the tribunals, is free to Uve and act without hindrance.
Yet, though all this is true, it would be very erroneous
to draw the conclusion that in America is to be sought
the type of the most desirable status of the Church, or
that it would be universally lawful or expedient for State
and Church to be, as in America, dissevered and divorced.
The fact that Catholicity with you is in good condition,
nay, is even enjoying a prosperous growth, is by all means
to be attributed to the fecimdity with which God has
endowed His Church, in virtue of which unless men or

324 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

circumstances interfere, she spontaneously expands and
propagates herself; but she would bring forth more
abundant fruits if, in addition to liberty, she enjoyed
the favor of the laws and the patronage of the pubUc
authority.

For Our part We have left nothing undone, as far as
circumstances permitted, to preserve and more solidly
establish amongst you the CathoUc religion. With this
intent, We have, as you are well aware, turned Our
attention to two special objects: first, the advancement
of learning; second, a perfecting of methods in the man-
agement of Church affairs. There already, indeed, existed
several distinguished imiversities. We, however, thought
it ad\'isable that there should be one founded by authority
of the Apostolic See and endowed by Us with all suitable
powers, in which Catholic professors might instruct those
devoted to the pursuit of learning. The design was to
begin with philosophy and theology, adding, as means
and circumstances would allow, the remaining branches,
those particularly which the present age has introduced
or perfected. An education cannot be deemed complete
which takes no notice of modern sciences. It is obvious
that in the existing keen competition of talents, and the
widespread and, in itself, noble and praiseworthy passion
for knowledge. Catholics ought to be not followers but
leaders. It is necessary, therefore, that they should
cultivate every refinement of learning, and zealously
train their minds to the discovery of truth and the in-
vestigation, so far as it is possible, of the entire domain
of nature. This in every age has been the desire of the
Church; upon the enlargement of the boundaries of the
sciences has she been wont to bestow all possible labor
and energy. By a letter, therefore, dated the seventh
day of March, in the year of Our Lord 1889, directed to
you. Venerable Brethren, We established at Washington,
your capital city, esteemed by a majority of you a very
proper seat for the higher studies, a university for the

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 325

instruction of young men desirous of pursuing advanced
courses. In announcing this matter to Our Venerable
Brethren, the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, in
Consistory, We expressed the wish that it should be re-
garded as the fixed law of the university to unite erudition
and learning with soundness of faith and to imbue its
students not less with reUgion than with scientific culture.
To the Bishops of the United States We entrusted the
task of establishing a suitable course of studies and of
super^dsing the discipUne of the students; and We con-
ferred the ofl5ce and authority of Chancellor, as it is called,
upon the Archbishop of Baltimore. And, by di^^ne
favor, a quite happy beginning was made. For, without
any delay, whilst you were celebrating the hundredth
anniversary of the establishment of your ecclesiastical
hierarchy, under the brightest auspices, in the presence
of Our delegate, the di^'/inity classes were opened. From
that time onward We know that theological science has
been imparted by the diligence of eminent men the re-
nown of whose talents and learning receives a fitting
crown in their recognized loyalty and devotion to the
Apostolic See. Nor is it long since We were apprised
that, thanks to the Uberahty of a pious priest, a new
building had been constructed, in which young men,
as well cleric as lay, are to receive instruction in the natural
sciences and in hterature. From Our knowledge of the
American character. We are fully confident that the
example set by this noble man will incite others of your
citizens to imitate him; they will not fail to reahze that
Uberahty exercised towards such an object will be repaid
by the very greatest advantages to the public.

No one can be ignorant how powerfully similar insti-
tutions of learning, whether originally founded by the
Roman Church herself from time to time or approved
and promoted by her legislation, have contributed to the
spread of knowledge and civilization in everj'^ part of Eu-
rope. Even in Our own day, though other instances might

326 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

be given, it is enough to mention the University of Lou-
vain, to which the entire Belgian nation ascribes its al-
most daily increase in prosperity and glory. Equally
abundant will be the benefits proceeding from the Wash-
ington University, if the professors and students (as
We doubt not they will) be mindful of Our injunctions,
and, shunning party spirit and strife, conciUate the good
opinion of the people and the clergy.

We wish now. Venerable Brethren, to commend to
your affection and to the generosity of your people the
college which Our predecessor, Pius IX., founded in this
city for the ecclesiastical training of young men from
North America, and which We took care to place upon
a firm basis by a letter dated the twenty-fifth day of
October, in the year of Our Lord 1884 We can make
this appeal the more confidently, because the results
obtained from this institution have by no means belied
the expectations commonly entertained regarding it.
You yourselves can testify that during its brief existence
it has sent forth a very large number of exemplary priests,
some of whom have been promoted for their virtue and
learning to the highest degrees of ecclesiastical dignity.
We are, therefore, thoroughly persuaded that }^ou will
continue to be solicitous to send hither select young men
who are in training to become the hope of the Church.
For they will carry back to their homes and utilize for the
general good the wealth of intellectual attainments and
moral excellence which they shall have acquired in the
city of Rome.

The love which We cherish towards the Catholics of
your nation moved Us, likewise, to turn Our attention
at the very beginning of Our Pontificate to the convo-
cation of a third Plenary Council of Baltimore. Sub-
sequently, when the archbishops, at Our invitation, had
come to Rome, We diligently inquired from them what
they deemed most conducive to the common good. We
finally, and after mature deliberation, ratified by apos-

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 327

folic authority the decrees of the prelates assembled at
Baltimore. In truth the event has proven, and still
proves, that the decrees of Baltimore were salutary and
timely in the extreme. Experience has demonstrated
their power for the maintenance of discipline; for stim-
ulating the intelligence and zeal of the clergy; for de-
fending and developing the Catholic education of youth.
Wherefore, Venerable Brethren, if We make acknowl-
edgment of your activity in these matters, if We laud
your firmness tempered with prudence, We but pay tribute
due to your merit ; for We are fully sensible that so great
a harvest of blessings could by no means have so swiftly
ripened to maturity, had you not exerted yourselves,
each to the utmost of his ability, sedulously and faith-
fully to carry into effect the statutes you had wisely
framed at Baltimore.

But when the Council of Baltimore had concluded its
labors, the duty still remained of putting, so to speak, a
proper and becoming crowTi upon the work. This, We
perceived, could scarcely be done in a more fitting manner
than through the due establishment by the Apostolic
See of an American Legation. Accordingly, as you are
well aware, We have done this. By this action, as We
have elsewhere intimated, We have wished, first of all,
to certify that, in Our judgment and affection, America
occupies the same place and rights as other States, be
they ever so mighty and imperial. In addition to this
We had in mind to draw more closely the bonds of duty
and friendship which connect you and so many thousands
of Catholics with the Apostolic See. In fact, the mass
of the Catholics understood how salutary Our action
was destined to be; they saw, moreover, that it accorded
with the usage and policy of the Apostolic See. For it
has been, from earliest antiquity, the custom of the Roman
Pontiffs in the exercise of the divinely bestowed gift of
the primacy in the administration of the Church of Christ
to send forth legates to Christian nations and peoples.

328 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

And they did this, not by an adventitious but an inherent
right. For "the Roman Pontiff, upon whom Christ
has conferred ordinary and immediate jurisdiction, as
well over all and singular churches, as over all and
singular pastors and faithful,* since he cannot personally
visit the different regions and thus exercise the pastoral
office over the flock entrusted to him, finds it necessary,
from time to time, in the discharge of the ministry im-
posed on him, to despatch legates into different parts of
the world, according as the need arises; who, supplying
his place, may correct errors, make the rough ways plain,
and administer to the people confided to their care increased
means of salvation." ^

But how unjust and baseless would be the suspicion,
should it anywhere exist, that the powers conferred on
the legate are an obstacle to the authority of the bishops!
Sacred to Us (more than to any other) are the rights of
those "whom the Holy Ghost has placed as bishops
to Tide the Church of God." That these rights should re-
main intact in every nation in every part of the globe.
We both desire and ought to desire, the more so since the
dignity of the individual bishop is by nature so inter-
woven with the dignity of the Roman Pontiff that any
measure which benefits the one necessarily protects the
other, "My honor is the honor of the Universal Church.
My honor is the unimpaired vigor of My brethren. Then
am I truly honored when to each one due honor is not
denied." ^ Therefore, since it is the office and function
of an apostolic legate, with whatsoever powers he may
be vested, to execute the mandates and interpret the will
of the Pontiff who sends him, thus, so far from his being
of any detriment to the ordinary power of the bishops,
he will rather bring an accession of stability and strength.

> Con. Vat. Sess., iv. c. 3.

' Cap. Un. Extra V. Coram. De Consuet, L 1.

' S. Gregorius Epis. ad Eulog. Alex. lib. viii. ep, 30.

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 329

His authority will possess no slight weight for preserving
in the multitude a submissive spirit; in the clergy dis-
cipline and due reverence for the bishops, and in the
bishops mutual charity and an intimate union of souls.
And since this union, so salutary and desirable, consists
mainly in harmony of thought and action, he will, no
doubt, bring it to pass that each one of you shall perse-
vere in the diligent administration of his diocesan affairs;
that one shall not impede another in matters of govern-
ment; that one shall not pry into the counsels and con-
duct of another; finally, that with disagreements eradi-
cated and mutual esteem maintained, you may all work
together with combined energies to promote the glory
of the American Church and the general welfare. It is
dijfficult to estimate the good results which will flow from
this concord of the bishops. Our own people will receive
edification; and the force of example will have its effect
on those without — who will be persuaded by this argu-
ment alone that the divine apostolate has passed by
inheritance to the ranks of the Catholic episcopate.

Another consideration claims our earnest attention.
All intelligent men are agreed, and We Ourselves have
with pleasure intimated it above, that America seems
destined for greater things. Now, it is Our wish that
the Catholic Church should not only share in, but help
to bring about, this prospective greatness. We deem
it right and proper that she should, by availing herself
of the opportunities daily presented to her, keep equal
step with the Republic in the march of improvement,
at the same time striving to the utmost, by her virtue
and her institutions, to aid in the rapid growth of the
States. Now, she will attain both these objects the
more easily and abundantly, in proportion to the degree
in which the future shall find her constitution perfected.
But what is the meaning of the legation of which we
are speaking, or what is its ultimate aim except to bring
it about that the constitution of the Church shall be

330 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

strengthened, her discipHne better fortified? Wherefore,
We ardently desire that this truth should sink day by
day more deeply into the minds of Catholics — namely,
that they can in no better way safeguard their own in-
dividual interests and the common good than by yielding
a hearty submission and obedience to the Church. Your
faithful people, however, are scarcely in need of exhortation
on this point; for they are accustomed to adhere to the
institutions of CathoUcity with wiUing souls and a con-
stancy worthy of all praise.

To one matter of the first importance and fraught
with the greatest blessings it is a pleasure at this place
to refer, on account of the holy firmness in principle and
practice respecting it which, as a rule, rightly prevails
amongst you; We mean the Christian dogma of the
unity and indissolubiUty of marriage; which supplies
the firmest bond of safety not merely to the family but
to society at large. Not a few of your citizens, even of
those who dissent from us in other doctrines, terrified
by the licentiousness of divorce, admire and approve
in this regard the Catholic teaching and the Catholic
customs. They are led to this judgment not less by
love of country than by the wisdom of the doctrine.
For difficult it is to imagine a more deadly pest to the
community than the wish to declare dissoluble a bond
which the law of God has made perpetual and inseverable.
Divorce "is the fruitful cause of mutable marriage con-
tracts; it diminishes mutual affection; it supplies a
pernicious stimulus to unfaithfulness; it is injurious
to the care and education of children; it gives occasion
to the breaking up of domestic society; it scatters the
seeds of discord among famihes; it lessens and degrades
the dignity of women, who incur the danger of being
abandoned when they shall have subserved the lust of
their husbands. And since nothing tends so effectually
as the corruption of morals to ruin families and \mder-
mine the strength of kingdoms, it may easily be per*

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 331

ccived that divorce is especially hostile to the prosperity
of families and States." ^

As regards civil affairs, experience has shown how
important it is that the citizens should be upright and
virtuous. In a free State, unless justice be generally
cultivated, unless the people be repeatedly and dili-
gently urged to observe the precepts and laws of the
Gospel, liberty itseK may be pernicious. Let those of
the clergy, therefore, who are occupied with the instruction
of the multitude, treat plainly this topic of the duties
of citizei^s, so that all may understand and feel the neces-
sity, in political life, of conscientiousness, self-restraint,
and integrity; for that cannot be lawful in public which
is unlawful in private affairs. On this whole subject
there are to be found, as you know, in the encyclical
letterw written by Us from time to time in the course of
Our pontificate, many things which Catholics should
attend to and observe. In these writings and expositions
We have treated of human liberty, of the chief Christian
duties, of civil government, and of the Christian constitu-
tion of States, drawing Our principles as well from the
teaching of the Gospels as from reason. They, then, who
wish to be good citizens and discharge their duties faith-
fully may readily learn from Our Letters the ideal of an
upright life. In Uke manner, let the priests be persistent
in keeping before the minds of the people the enactments
of the Third Council of Baltimore, particularly those
which inculcate the virtue of temperance, the frequent
use of the sacraments and the observance of the just
laws and institutions of the Republic.

Now, with regard to entering societies, extreme care
should be taken not to be ensnared by error. And We
wish to be understood as referring in a special manner
to the working classes, who assuredly have the right to
unite in associations for the promotion of their interests;
a right acknowledged by the Church and unopposed by
' Encyc. Arcanum.

332 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

nature. But it is very important to take heed with
whom they are to associate, lest whilst seeking aid for
the improvement of their condition they may be im-
perilling far weightier interests. The most effectual pre-
caution against this peril is to determine with themselves
at no time or in any matter to be parties to the violation
of justice. Any society, therefore, which is ruled by
and servilely obeys persons who are not steadfast for the
right and friendly to religion is capable of being extremely
prejudicial to the interests as well of individuals as of the
community; beneficial it cannot be. Let this conclusion,
therefore, remain firm — to shun not only those associa-
tions which have been openly condemned by the judg-
ment of the Church, but those also which, in the opinion
of intelligent men, and especially of the bishops, are
regarded as suspicious and dangerous.

Nay, rather, unless forced by necessity to do otherwise,
Catholics ought to prefer to associate with CathoUcs, a
course which will be very conducive to the safeguarding
of their faith. As presidents of societies thus formed
among themselves, it will be well to appoint either priests
or upright laymen of weight and character, guided by
whose counsels they should endeavor peacefully to adopt
and carry into effect such measures as may seem most
advantageous to their interests, keeping in view the rules
laid down by Us in Our Encychcal, Rerum Novarum.
Let them, however, never allow this to escape their
memory: that whilst it is proper and desirable to assert
and secure the rights of the many, yet this is not to be
done by a violation of duty; and that these are very
important duties; not to touch what belongs to another;
to allow every one to be free in the management of his
own affairs; not to hinder any one to dispose of his
services when he please and where he please. The scenes
of violence and riot which you witnessed last year in
your own country sufficiently admonish you that America
too is threatened with the audacity and ferocity of the

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 333

enemies of public order. The state of the times, therefore,
bids Catholics to labor for the tranquillity of the common-
wealth, and for this purpose to obey the laws, abhor
violence, and seek no more than equity or justice permits.
Towards these objects much may be contributed by
those who have devoted themselves to writing, and in
particular by those who are engaged on the daily press.
We are aware that already there labor in this field many
men of skill and experience, whose dihgence demands
words of praise rather than of encouragement. Never-
theless, since the thirst for reading and knowledge is so
vehement and widespread amongst you, and since, ac-
cording to circumstances, it can be productive either of
good or evil, every effort should be made to increase the
number of intelHgent and well-disposed writers who
take religion for their guide and virtue for their constant
companion. And this seems all the more necessary in
America, on account of the familiar intercourse and in-
timacy between Catholics and those who are estranged
from the Catholic name, a condition of things which
certainly exacts from our people great circumspection
and more than ordinary firmness. It is necessary to
instruct, admonish, strengthen and urge them on to
the pursuit of virtue and to the faithful observance,
amid so many occasions of stumbUng, of their duties
towards the Church. It is, of course, the proper function
of the clergy to devote their care and energies to this great
work; but the age and the country require that journalists
should be equally zealous in this same cause and labor
in it to the full extent of their powers. Let them, how-
ever, seriously reflect that their writings, if not positively
prejudicial to religion, will surely be of slight service to
it unless in concord of minds they all seek the same end.
They who desire to be of real service to the Church, and
with their pens heartily to defend the Catholic cause,
should carry on the confhct with perfect unanimity,
and, as it were, with serried ranks, for they rather inflict

334 CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES.

than repel war if they waste their strength by discord.
In like manner their work, instead of being profitable
and fruitful, becomes injurious and disastrous whenever
they presume to call before their tribunal the decisions
and acts of bishops, and, casting off due reverence, cavil
and find fault; not perceiving how great a disturbance
of order, how many evils are thereby produced. Let
them, then, be mindful of their duty, and not overstep
the proper hmits of moderation. The bishops, placed
in the lofty position of authority, are to be obeyed, and
suitable honor befitting the magnitude and sanctity of
their office should be paid them. Now, this reverence,
"which it is lawful to no one to neglect," should of neces-
sity be eminently conspicuous and exemplary in Catholic
journalists. For journals, naturally circulating far and
wide, come daily into the hands of everybody, and exert
no small influence upon the opinions and morals of the
multitude.*

We have Ourselves, on frequent occasions, laid down
many rules respecting the duties of a good writer; many
of which were unanimously inculcated as well by the
Third Council of Baltimore as by the archbishops in their
meeting at Chicago in the year 1893. Let Catholic
writers, therefore, bear impressed on their minds Our
teachings on this point as well as yours; and let them
resolve that their entire method of writing shall be thereby
guided, if they indeed desire, as they ought to desire, to
discharge their duty well.

Our thoughts now turn to those who dissent from
us in matters of Christian faith; and who shall deny
that, with not a few of them, dissent is a matter rather
of inheritance than of will? How solicitous We are of
their salvation, with what ardor of soul We wish that
they should be at length restored to the embrace of the
Church, the common mother of all, Our Apostolic Epistle,

Ep. Cognita Nobis ad Archiepp, et Epp. Provinciarum, Taurinen.
Mediolanen. et Vercellen, xxv., Jan. an, MDCCCLXXXII.

CATHOLICITY IN THE UNITED STATES. 335

" Praedara," has in very recent times declared. Nor are
we destitute of all hope; for He is present and hath a
care whom all things obey and who laid down His life
that He might "gather in one the children of God who
were dispersed." (John xi. 52.)

Surely we ought not to desert them nor leave them to
their fancies; but with mildness and charity draw them
to us, using everj'^ means of persuasion to induce them
to examine closely every part of the Catholic doctrine,
and to free themselves from preconceived notions. In
this matter, if the first place belongs to the bishops and
clergy, the second belongs to the laity, who have it in their
power to aid the apostolic efforts of the clergy by the
probity of their morals and the integrity of their livec.
Great is the force of example; particularly wdth those
who are earnestly seeking the truth, and who, from a
certain inborn virtuous disposition, are striving to live
an honorable and upright life, to which class very many
of your fellow-citizens belong. If the spectacle of
Christian virtues exerted the powerful influence over the
heathens blinded, as they weie, by inveterate superstition,
which the records of history attest, shall we think it
powerless to eradicate error in the case of those who have
been initiated into the Christian religion?

Finally, We cannot pass over in silence those whose
long-continued unhappy lot implores and demands suc-
cor from men of apostolic zeal; We refer to the Indians
and the negroes who are to be found within the confines
of America, the greatest portion of whom have not yet
dispelled the darkness of superstition. How wide a
field for cultivation! How great a multitude of human
beings to be made partakers of the blessing derived through
Jesus Christ!

Meanwhile, as a presage of heavenlj^ graces and a
testimony of Our benevolence, We most lovingly in the
Lord impart to you, Venerable Brethren, and to your
clergy and people, Our Apostolic Benediction.

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

Apostolical Letter Amantissima voluntatis, April 27, 1895.

Some time since, in an apostolic letter to princes and
peoples, We addressed the English in common with other
nations, but We have greatly desired to do this by a
special letter, and thus give to the illustrious English
race a token of Our sincere affection. This wish has
been kept alive by the hearty good-will We have always
felt towards your people, whose great deeds in olden
times the history of the Church declares. We were yet
more moved by not infrequent conversations with your
countrymen, who testified to the kindly feeling of the
English towards Us personally, and above all to their
anxiety for peace and eternal salvation through unity
of faith. God is Our witness how keen is Our wish that
some effort of Ours might tend to assist and further the
great work of obtaining the reunion of Christendom;
and We render thanks to God, who has so far prolonged
Our life, that We may make an endeavor in this direction.
But since, as is but right. We place Our confidence of a
happy issue principally and above all in the wonderful
power of God's grace. We have with full consideration
determined to invite all Englishmen who glory in the
Christian name to this same work, and We exhort them
to lift up their hearts to God with Us, to fix their trust
in Him, and to seek from Him the help necessary in such
a matter by assiduous diligence in holy prayer.

The love and care of the Roman Pontiffs for England
has been traditional from the days of Our holy predecessor

336

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 337

Gregory the Great, Religion and humanity generally, and
especially the English nation, owe him a deep debt of
gratitude. Although prevented, by the divine call to yet
higher duty, from himself undertaking the apostolic labor
"of converting the Anglo-Saxons, as he had proposed to
do whilst still a monk, his mind remained intent upon this
great and salutary design,"^ nor did he rest until it was
accomplished. For from that monastic family which
he had formed in learning and holiness of life in his own
house he sent a chosen band under the leadership of
Augustine to be the messengers of grace, wisdom and civil-
ization to those who were still buried in paganism. And
relying as he did on divine help his hope grew stronger
under difficulty, until at length he saw his work crowned
with success. He himself writes of this in tones of trium-
phant joy in reply to St. Augustine, who had sent him
the news of the happy result: "Glory be to God on high
and on earth peace to men of good will. To Christ be
the glory in whose death we live; by whose weakness we
are strong, in the love of whom We seek in Britain those
brethren whom We knew not; by whose mercy We have
found those whom knowing not We sought. Who can
tell what gladness filled the hearts of all here to know
that the Enghsh race, by the workings of the grace of
God Almighty, and by your labors, my brother, has been
illuminated by the light of our holy faith, which expels
the darkness of error, and has with free mind trodden
under foot those idols to which aforetime they were sub-
ject in foolish fear." ^ And congratulating Ethelbert, King
of Kent, and Bertha his Queen, in a letter full of affec-
tion, in that they imitated " Helen, of illustrious memory,
and Constantine, the devout Emperor,"' he strengthens
them and their people with salutary admonitions. Nor
did he cease for the rest of his life to foster and develop

* Joann. Diac. in vita ejus, c. ii. 33.

* Epist. c. xi. 28, et c. Lx. 58.

' lb. c. xi, 66, al c. ix. 60, c. xi, 29, et c, ix. 59.

338 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

their faith in instructions dictated by holy prudence. Thus
Christianity, which the Church had conveyed to Britain,
and spread and defended there against rising heresy/
after having been blotted out by the invasion of heathen
races, was now by the care of Gregory happily restored.

Having resolved to address this letter to the English
people. We recall at once these great and glorious events
in the annals of the Church, which must surely be remem-
bered by them in gratitude. Moreover, it is noteworthy
that this love and solicitude of Gregory was inherited by
the Pontiffs who succeeded him. This is shown by their
constant interposition in providing worthy pastors and
capable teachers in learning, both human and divine, by
their helpful counsels, and by their affording in abundant
measure whatever was necessary for establishing and
developing that rising Church. And very soon was such
care rewarded, for in no other case perhaps did the faith
take root so quickly nor was so keen and intense a love
manifested towards the See of Peter. That the English
race was in those days devoted to this centre of Christian
unity divinely constituted in the Roman Bishops, and
that in the course of ages men of all ranks were bound to
them by ties of loyalty, are facts too abundantly and plainly
testified by the pages of history to admit of doubt or
question.

But, in the storms which devasted Catholicity through-
out Europe in the sixteenth century, England, too, re-
ceived a grievous wound; for it was first unhappily

* The action of St. Celestine I. was most efficacious against the
Pelagian heresy which had infected Britain, as St. Prosper of
Aqmtaine, a writer of that time, and afterwards secretary to St.
Leo the Great, records in his chronicle; "Agricola the Pelagian,
son of the Pelagian Bishop Severianus, tainted the Churches of
Britain with the insinuations of his teaching. But at the instance
of the deacon, Palladius, Pope Celestine sent Germanus, Bishop of
Auxerre, as his vicar {vice sua), and led back the British people
to the Catholic faith, having driven out the heretics." (Migne,
Bibl. P. P. S. Prosp. Aquit. opp. vol. un: p. 594).

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 339

wrenched from communication with the Apostolic See,
and then was bereft of that holy faith in which for long
centuries it had rejoiced and found liberty. It was a
sad defection; and Our predecessors, while lamenting it
in their earnest love, made every prudent effort to put
an end to it, and to mitigate the many evils consequent
upon it. It would take long, and it is not necessary, to
detail the sedulous and increasing care taken by Our
predecessors in those circumstances. But by far the
most valuable and effective assistance they afforded lies
in their having so repeatedly urged on the faithful the
practice of special prayer to God that He would look with
compassion on England. In the number of those who
devoted themselves to this special work of charity there
were some venerable and saintly men, especially St.
Charles Borromeo and St. Philip Neri, and, in the last cen-
tury, Paul, the founder of the Society of the Passion of
Christ, who, not without a certain divine impulse, it is said,
was instant in supplication "at the throne of divine grace" ;
and this all the more earnestly that the times seemed
less favorable to the realization of his hopes. We, indeed,
long before being raised to the Supreme Pontificate,
were deeply sensible also of the importance of holy prayer
offered for this cause, and heartily approved of it. For,
as We gladly recall, at the time when We were Nim-
cio in Belgium, becoming acquainted with an English-
man, Ignatius Spencer, himself a devout son of the same
St. Paul of the Cross, he laid before Us the project he
had already initiated for extending a society of pious
people, to pray for the return of the English nation to
the Church.*

We can hardly say how cordially We entered into
this design, whoUy inspired by faith and charity, and
how We helped forward this cause, anticipating that the

*For this purpose he specially recommended the "Hail Mary,"
and obtained from the General Chapter of his Order, held in Rome
in 1857, a special injunction upon its menbers.

340 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

English Church would obtain abundant assistance there-
by. Although the fruits of divine grace obtained by-
prayer had previously manifested themselves, yet as that
holy league spread they became notorious. Very many
were led to follow the divine call, and among them not
a few men of distinguished eminence, and many, too,
who in doing so had to make personal and heroic sacri-
fices. Moreover, there was a wonderful drawing of hearts
and minds towards Catholic faith and practice, which
rose in public respect and esteem, and many a long-
cherished prejudice yielded to the force of truth.

Looking at all this. We do not doubt that the united
and humble suppHcations of so many to God are hastening
the time of further manifestations of His merciful designs
towards the English people when the Word of the Lord
may run and he glorified} Our confidence is strengthened
by observing the legislative and other measures which,
if they do not perhaps directly, still do indirectly help
forward the end We have in view by ameliorating the
condition of the people at large, and by giving effect to
the laws of justice and charity.

We have heard with singular joy of the great attention
which is being given in England to the solution of the
social question, of which We have treated with much
care in Our encyclicals, and of the estabhshment of bene-
fit and similar societies, whereby on a legal basis the con-
dition of the working classes is improved. And We have
heard of the vigorous and persevering efforts made to
preserve for the people at large an education based on
religious teaching, than which there is no firmer founda-
tion for the instruction of youth and the maintenance of
domestic life and civil pofity; of the zeal and energy with
which so many engage in forwarding opportune measures
for the repression of the degrading vice of intemperance;
of societies formed among the young men of the upper

» 2 Thes. m. 1.

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 341

classes for the promotion of purity of morals and for sus-
taining the honor due to womanhood. For, alas, in regard
to the Christian virtue of continence pernicious views
are subtly creeping in, as though it were believed that a
man was not so strictly bound by the precept as a woman.
Moreover, reflecting men are deeply concerned at the
spread of rationalism and materialism, and We Our-
selves have often Ufted up Our voice to denounce these
evils, which weaken and paralyze not religion only, but
the very springs of thought and action. The highest
credit is due to those who fearlessly and unceasingly
proclaim the rights of God and of Our Lord Jesus Christ,
and the laws and teachings given by Him for the estab-
lishment of the divine kingdom here upon earth; in
the which teachings alone strength, wisdom and safety
are to be found. The various and abundant manifestations
of care for the aged, for orphans, for incurables, for the
destitute, the refuges, reformatories, and other forms of
charity, all which the Church as a tender mother inaugu-
rated and from the earliest times has ever inculcated as
a special duty, are evidences of the spirit which animates
you. Nor can We omit to mention specially the strict
public observance of Sunday and the general spirit of
respect for the Holy Scriptures. Every one knows the
power and resources of the British nation and the civiliz-
ing influence which, with the spread of liberty, accom-
panies its commercial prosperity even to the most remote
regions. But, worthy and noble in themselves as are all
these varied manifestations of activity. Our soul is raised
to the origin of all power and the perennial source of all
good things, to God our Heavenly Father, most beneficent.
For the labors of man, whether public or private, will not
attain to their full efficacy without appeal to God in
prayer and \\ithout the divine blessing. For happy is
that people whose God is the Lord} For the mind of the

* Ps. cxliii. 15.

342 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

Christian should be so turned and fixed that he place*
and rests the chief hope of his undertakings in the divine
help obtained by prayer, whereby human effort is super-
naturalized and the desire of doing good, as though quick-
ened by a heavenly fire, manifests itself in vigorous and
serviceable actions. In this power of prayer God has
not merely dignified man, but with infinite mercy has
given him a protector and help in the time of need, ready
at hand to all, easy and void of effect to no one who haa
resolute recourse to it. ''Prayer is our powerful weapon,
our great protection, our storehouse, our port of refuge,
our place of safety." '■

But if the prayer of the righteous man rightly avail so
much with God even in earthly concerns, how much more
will it not avail one who is destined to an eternal existence
for obtaining those spiritual blessings which Christ has
procured for mankind by "the sacrament of His mercy."
For He who of God is made unto us wisdom and justice
and sanctification and redemption,^ in addition to what
He taught, instituted and effected, gave also for this
purpose the salutary precept of prayer and in His great
goodness confirmed it by His example.

These simple truths are indeed known to every Chris-
tian, but still by many they are neither remembered
nor valued as they should be. It is for this reason that
We insist the more strenuously on the confidence which
should be placed in praj^er, and recall the words and ex-
ample of the Fatherly love of the same Christ our Lord;
words of deepest import and highest encouragement;
words also which show forth how in the counsels of God
prayer is at the same time the expression of our help-
lessness and the sure hope of obtaining the strength we
need. And I say to you, Ask and it shall he given you;
seek and you shall find; knock and it shall be opened to
you; for every one that asketh, receiveth, and he that seeketh,
findeth: and to him thai knocketh it shall be opened.* And
' ChryB. Horn. 30 in Gen. » 1 Cor. i. 30. ' Luke xi. 9, 10.

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 343

the Son of God Himself shows us that if our prayers are
to be acceptable to the divine Majesty they must be
united ^^^th His name and merits. Amen, amen, I say
to you if you ask the Father anything in My name, He v)Ul
give it you. Hitherto you have not asked anything in My
name. Ask and you shall receive, that your joy may be
full.^ And He enforces this by reference to the tender
love of parents for their own children. If you, then, being
evil, He says, know how to give good gifts to your children,
how much more will your Father from heaven give the good
Spirit to them that ask Him.^

And how abundant are not the choice gifts contained
in that good Spirit. The greatest of them all is that
hidden power of which Christ spoke when He said: No
m,an can come to Me except the Father, who hath sent Me, draw
him.^

It is impossible that men grounded in this teaching
should not feel drawn and even impelled to the habit of
faithful prayer. With what steady perseverance will they
not practise it; with what fervor pursue it, having before
them the very example of Christ Himself, who, having
nothing to fear for Himself and needing nothing, for He
was God, yet passed the whole night in prayer,^ and
with a strong cry and tears offered up prayers and sup-
plications,^ and doing this "He wished to stand pleading
before His Father as if remembering at that time that
He was our teacher,"^ as Venerable Bede, that ornament
of j'-our nation, wisely considers. But nothing proves
so clearly and forcibly both the precept and the example
of our divine Lord in regard to prayer as His List dis-
course to the apostles during those sad moments that
preceded His passion, when, raising His eyes to heaven,
He again and again entreated His Holy Father, prayiDg
and beseeching Him for the most intimate union of His
disciples and folloM-^ers in the truth, as the most convinc-

' John xvi. 23, 24. » John vi. 44. « Heb. v. 7.

* Luke xL 13. * Luke vi. 12. • In ev. S, Joann. xvii.

344 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

ing evidence to the world of the divine mission on which
He was about to send them.

And here no thought is more welcome to Our soul than
that happy unity of faith and wills for which our Redeemer
and divine Master prayed in that earnest supplication — a
unity which, if useful at all times even for temporal inter-
ests, both at home and abroad, is shown by the very
divisions and confusions of these days to be more than
ever needful. We on Our part, watching the signs of
the times, exhorting and taking thought for the future,
urged thereto by the example of Christ and the duty of
Our apostolic office, have not ceased to pray, and still
humbly pray, for the return of Christian nations now
divided from Us to the unity of former days. We have
more than once of late years given expression to this
object of Our desires, and have devoted sedulous care to
its realization. The time cannot be far distant when We
must appear to render an account of Our stewardship to
the Prince of pastors, and how happy, how blessed should
We be if We could bring to Him some fruit — some reali-
zation of these Our wishes which He has inspired and
sustained. In these days Our thoughts turn with love
and hope to the EngUsh people, observing as We do the
frequent and manifest works of divine grace in their
midst; how, to some, it is plain, the confusion of religious
dissensions which divide them is a cause of deep concern;
how others see clearly the need of some sure defence
against the inroad of modem errors which only too readily
humor the wishes of fallen nature and depraved reason;
how the number of those religious and discreet men,
who sincerely labor much for reunion with the Catholic
Church, is increasing. We can hardly say how strongly
these and other signs quicken the charity of Christ in Us,
and redoubling Our prayers from Our inmost soul We
call down a fuller measure of divine grace, which, poured
out on minds so well disposed, may issue in the ardently
desired fruit, the fruit, namely, that We may all meet

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 345

into the unity of faith and of the knowledge of the Son
of God ^ careful to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond
of peace, one body and one Spirit; as you are called in
one hope of your calling — one Lord, one faith, one bap-
tism.^

With loving heart, then, We turn to you all in England,
to whatever commimity or institution you may belong,
desiring to recall you to this holy unity. We beseech you,
as you value your eternal salvation, to offer up humble
and continuous prayer to God, our Heavenly Father, the
giver of all light, who with gentle power impels us to
the good and the right; and without ceasing to implore
light to know the truth in all its fulness, and to embrace
the designs of His mercy with single and entire faithful-
ness, calling upon the glorious name and merits of Jesus
Christ, who is the author and finisher of our jaith^ who
loved the Church and delivered Himself for it, that He might
sanctify it and might present it to Himself a glorious Church.*
Difficulties there msij be for us to face, but they are not
of a nature which should delay Our apostolic zeal or
stay your energy. Ah, no doubt the many changes that
have come about, and time itself, have caused the existing
divisions to take deeper root. But is that a reason to
give up all hope of remedy, reconciliation and peace?
By no means if God is with us. For we must not judge
of such great issues from a human standpoint only, but
rather must we look to the power and mercy of God.
In great and arduous enterprises, provided they are un-
dertaken with an earnest and right intent, God stands
by man's side, and it is precisely in these difficulties that
the action of His providence shines forth with greatest
splendor. The time is not far distant when thirteen
centuries will have been completed since the English
race welcomed those apostolic men sent, as We have
said, from this very city of Rome, and, casting aside the

» Eoh. iv. 13. » lb. 3-5. » Heb, xii. 2. ♦ Eph. v, 26-27.

346 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

pagan deities, dedicated the first fruits of its faith to Christ
our Lord and God. This encourages Our hope. It is,
indeed, an event worthy to be remembered with pubhc
thanksgiving; would that this occasion might bring to
all reflecting minds the memory of the faith then preached
to your ancestors, the same which is now preached —
Jesus Christ yesterday, to-day, and the same forever,^ as
the apostle says, who also most opportunely exhorts
you, as He does all, to remember those first preachers
who have spoken the word of God to you, whose faith follow,
considering the end of their conversation.^

In such a cause We, first of all, call to Our assistance
as Our allies the Cathohcs of England, whose faith and
piety We know by experience. There can be no doubt
that, weighing earnestly the value and effects of holy
prayer, the virtue of which We have truly declared, they
will strive by every means to succor their fellow-countrv'-
men and brethren by invoking in their behalf the divine
clemency. To pray for oneself is a need, to pray for
othei-s is a counsel of brotherly love; and it is plain that
it is not prayer dictated by necessity so much as that in-
spired by fraternal charity which will find most favor
in the sight of God. The first Christians undoubtedly
adopted this practice. Especially in all that pertains to
the gift of faith the early ages set us a striking example.
Thus it was the custom to pray to God with ardor that
relations, friends, rulers, and fellow-citizens might be
blessed by a mind obedient to the Christian faith.'

And in regard to this there is another matter which
gives Us anxiety. We have heard that in England there
are some who, being Catholics in name, do not show
themselves so in practice; and that in your great to^vns
there are vast numbers of people who know not the ele-
ments of the Christian faith, who never pray to God, and
live in ignorance of His justice and of His mercy. Wd

* Heb. xiii. 8. ' lb. 7. ' S, Aug. de dono peraev. xxiii. 63-

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 347

must pray to God, and pray yet more earnestly in this
sad condition of things, since He alone can effect a remedy.
May He show the measures proper to be taken; may He
sustain the courage and strength of those who labor at
this arduous task; may He deign to send laborers into
His harvest.

Whilst We so earnestly press upon Our children the
duty of prayer, We desire at the same time to warn them
that they should not suffer themselves to be wanting in
anjrtliing that pertains to the grace and the fruit of prayer,
and that they should have ever before their minds the
precept of the Apostle Paul to the Corinthians: Be with-
out offence to the Jews and to the Gentiles, and to the Church
of God} For besides those interior dispositions of soul
necessary for rightly offering prayer to God, it is also
needful that they should be accompanied by actions and
by words befitting the Christian profession — ^first of all, and
chiefly, the exemplary observance of uprightness and
justice, of pitifulness for the poor, of penance, of peace
and concord in your own houses, of respect for the law —
these are what will give force and efficacy to your prayers.
Mercy favors the petition of those who in all justice study
and carry out the precepts of Christ, according to His
promise: // you abide in Me, and My words abide in you,
you shall ask whatever you will, and it shall be done unto
you} And therefore do We exhort you that, uniting
your prayer with Ours, your great desire may now be
that God "wdll grant you to welcome your fellow-citizens
and brethren in the bond of perfect charity. Moreover,
jt is profitable to implore the help of the saints of God,
the efficacy of whose prayers, specially in such a cause
as this, is shown in that pregnant remark of St. Augustine
as to St. Stephen: " If holy Stephen had not prayed, the
Church to-day would have had no Paul."

We therefore humbly call on St. Gregory, whom the

'ICor. X. 32. » John XV. 7.

348 TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE.

English have ever rejoiced to greet as the apostle of their
race, on Augustine his disciple and his messenger, and on
those other saints of God, through whose wonderful
virtues and no less wonderful deeds England has merited
the title of "Island of the Saints"; on St. Peter and St.
George, those special patrons, and above all on Mary, the
Holy Mother of God, whom Christ HimseK from the
Cross left to be the mother of mankind, to whom your
kingdom was dedicated by your forefathers under that
glorious title "The Dowry of Mary." All these with full
confidence We call upon to be Our pleaders before the
throne of God that, renewing the glory of ancient days,
He may fill you with all joy and peace in believing: that you
may abound in hope and in the poiver of the Holy Ghost}
Care should be taken that the prayers for unity already
estabhshed amongst you Catholics on certain fixed days
should be made more popular and recited with greater
devotion. Especially that the pious practice of the Holy
Rosary, which We Ourselves have so strongly recom-
mended, should flourish, for it contains as it were a simi-
mary of the Gospel teaching, and has always been a most
salutary institution for the people at large. Moreover,
We are pleased of Our own will and authority to add
still another to the sacred Indulgences which have been
granted from time to time by Our predecessors. We
grant, that is, to all those who piously recite the prayer
appended to this letter, to whatever nation they may
belong, an indulgence of three hundred days; moreover,
a plenary indulgence once a month on the observance
of the usual conditions to those who have recited it daily.
Finally, may the divine prayer of Christ Himself for
unity fill up the full measure of Our desires, a prayer
which on this day, through the mystery of His most
holy resurrection, We repeat with the utmost confidence:
Holy Father, keep them in Thy name whom Thou hast

* Rom. XV. 13.

TO THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 349

given Me: that they may he one as We also are one. . . .
Sanctify them in truth. Thy word is truth. . . . And not
for them only do I pray, hut for them also who through their
word shall believe in Me: that all may he one, as Thou,
Father, in Me, and I in Thee; that they also may be one in
Us. . . . I in them and Thou in Me: that they may he
made 'perfect in one: and the world may know that Thou
hast sent Me and hast loved them, as Thou hast also loved
Me.^

Finally, We desire all manner of blessings from God
for the whole of the British people, and with all Our heart
We pray that those who seek the kingdom of Christ and
salvation in the unity of faith may enter on the full reali-
zation of their desires.

To THE Blessed Virgin.

Prayer for England.

O Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God and our most
gentle Queen and Mother, look down in mercy upon
England thy "Dowry" and upon us all who greatly hope
and trust in thee. By thee it was that Jesus our Saviour
and our hope was given unto the world ; and He has given
thee to us that we might hope still more. Plead for us
thy children, whom thou didst receive and accept at the
foot of the cross. O sorrowful Mother! intercede for
our separated brethren, that with us in the one true
fold they may be united to the supreme Shepherd, the
Vicar of thy Son. Pray for us all, dear Mother, that by
faith fruitful in good works we may all deserve to see
and praise God, together with thee, in our heavenly
home. Amen.

* John xvii. 11, 17, 20, 21, 23.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

Encyclical Letter Satis Cogniium, June 20, 1896.

It is sufficiently well known unto you that no small
share of Our thoughts and of Our care is devoted to Our
endeavor to bring back to the fold, placed under the
guardianship of Jesus Christ, the chief Pastor of souls,
sheep that have strayed. Bent upon this, We have
thought it most conducive to this salutary end and pur-
pose to describe the exemplar and, as it were, the linea-
ments of the Church. Amongst these the most worthy
of Our chief consideration is Unity. This the divine
Author impressed on it as a lasting sign of truth and of
unconquerable strength. The essential beauty and come-
liness of the Church ought greatly to influence the minds
of those who consider it. Nor is it improbable that
ignorance may be dispelled by the consideration; that
false ideas and prejudices may be dissipated from the
minds chiefly of those who find themselves in error without
fault of theirs; and that even a love for the Church may
be stirred up in the souls of men, like unto that charity
wherewith Christ loved and united Himself to that spouse
redeemed by His precious blood. Christ loved the Church,
and delivered Himself wp for it}

If those about to come back to their most loving Mother
(not yet fully known, or culpably abandoned) should
perceive that their return involves not indeed the shedding
of their blood (at which price nevertheless the Church

» Eph. V. 25
350

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 351

was bought by Jesus Christ) but some lesser trouble and
labor, let them clearly understand that this burden has
been laid on them not by the wiU of man but by the will
and command of God. They may thus, by the help
of heavenly grace, realize and feel the truth of the divine
saying, My yoke is sweet and My burden lights

Wherefore, having put all Our hope in the Father of
lights, from whom cometh every best gift and every perfect
gift ^ — from Him, namely, who alone gives the increase ^ —
We earnestly pray that He will graciously grant Us the
power of bringing conviction home to the minds of men.

Although God can do by His own power all that is
effected by created natures, nevertheless in the counsels of
His loving providence He has preferred to help men by
the instrumentality of men. And, as in the natural order
He does not usually give full perfection except by means of
man's work and actions so also He makes use of human
aid for that which lies beyond the limits of nature; that is
to say, for the sanctification and salvation of souls. But
it is obvious that nothing can be communicated amongst
men save by means of external things which the senses can
preceive. For this reason the Son of God assumed human
nature — who being in the form of God . . . emptied Him-
self, taking the form of a servant, being made in the likeness
of a man * — and thus living on earth He taught His doc-
trine and gave His laws, conversing with men.

And since it was necessary that His divine mission
should be prepetuated to the end of time. He took to
Himself disciples, trained by Himself, and made them
partakers of His own authority. And, when He had
invoked upon them from heaven the Spirit of Truth, He
bade them go through the whole world and faithfully
preach to aU nations what He had taught and what He
had commanded, so that by the profession of His doctrine,
and the observance of His laws, the human race might

» Matt. xi. 30. ' James L 17. » 1 Cor. iii. 6. * Philipp. ii. 6, 7.

362 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

attain to holiness on earth and never-ending happiness in
heaven. In this wise, and on this principle, the Church
was begotten. If we consider the chief end of this Church
and the proximate efficient causes of salvation, it is un-
doubtedly spiritual; but in regard to those who constitute
it, and to the things which lead to these spiritual gifts,
it is external and necessarily visible. The apostles re-
ceived a mission to teach by visible and audible signs,
and they discharged their mission only by words and
acts which certainly appealed to the senses. So that
their voices falling upon the ears of those who heard
them begot faith in souls — Faith cometh by hearing, and
hearing by the word of Christ} And faith itself — that is
assent given to the first and supreme truth — though
residing essentially in the intellect, must be manifested
by outward profession — For, with the heart, we believe
unto justice; but with the mouth, confession is made unto
salvation.^ In the same way, in man, nothing is more
internal than heavenly grace which begets sanctity, but
the ordinary and chief means of obtaining grace are ex-
ternal: that is to say, the sacraments which are adminis-
tered by men specially chosen for that purpose, by means
of certain ordinances.

Jesus Christ commanded His apostles and their suc-
cessors to the end of time to teach and rule the nations.
He ordered the nations to accept their teaching and obey
their authority. But this correlation of rights and duties
in the Christian commonwealth not only could not
have been made permanent, but could not even have
been initiated except through the senses, which are of
all things the messengers and interpreters.

For this reason the Church is so often called in holy
writ a body, and even the body of Christ — Now you are
the body of Christ ' — and precisely because it is a body
is the Church visible : and because it is the body of Christ

» Rom. X. 17. » Rom. x. 10. * 1 Cor. xii. 27.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 353

is it living and energizing, because by the infusion of His
power Christ guards and sustains it, just as the vine gives
nourishment and renders fruitful the branches united to
it. And as in animals the vital principle is unseen and
invisible, and is evidenced and manifested by the move-
ments and action of the members, so the principle of
supernatural Ufe in the Church is clearly shown in that
which is done by it.

From this it follows that those who arbitrarily conjure
up and picture to themselves a hidden and invisible Church
are in grievous and pernicious error, as also are those who
regard the Church as a human institution which claims a
certain obedience in discipline and external duties, but
which is without the perennial communication of the gifts
of divine grace, and without all that which testifies by
constant and undoubted signs to the existence of that life
which is drawn from God. It is assuredly as impossible
that the Church of Jesus Christ can be the one or the
other as that man should be a body alone or a soul alone.
The connection and union of both elements is as abso-
lutely necessary to the true Church as the intimate union
of the soul and body is to human nature. The Church
is not something dead: it is the body of Christ endowed
with supernatural life. As Christ, the head and exemplar,
is not wholly in His visible human nature, which Photin-
ians and Nestorians assert, nor wholly in the invisible
divine nature, as the Monophysites hold, but is one, from
and in both natures, visible and invisible; so the mystical
body of Christ is the true Church only because its visible
parts draw hfe and power from the supernatural gifts and
other things whence spring their very nature and essence.
But since the Church is such by divine will and constitu-
tion, such it must uniformly remain to the end of time.
If it did not, then it would not have been founded as per-
petual and the end set before it would have been limited to
some certain place and to some certain period of time;
both of which are contrary to the truth. The union

354 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

consequently of visible and invisible elements, because it
harmonizes with the natural order and by God's will
belongs to the very essence of the Church, must neces-
sarily remain so long as the Church itself shall endure.
Wherefore Chrysostom writes: "Secede not from the
Church: for nothing is stronger than the Church. Thy
hope is the Church; thy salvation is the Church; thy
refuge is the Church. It is higher than the heavens
and wider than the earth. It never grows old, but is
ever full of vigor. Wherefore holy writ pointing to its
strength and stability calls it a mountain." ^

Also Augustine says: "Unbelievers think that the
Christian religion will last for a certain period in the world
and will then disappear. But it will remain as long as the
sun — as long as the sun rises and sets ; that is, as long as
the ages of time shall roll, the Church of God — the true
body of Christ on earth — will not disappear." ^ And in
another place: "The Church will totter if its foundation
shakes; but how can Christ be moved? . . . Christ re-
maining immovable, it (the Church) shall never be shaken.
Where are they that say that the Church has disappeared
from the world, when it cannot even be shaken?"'

He who seeks the truth must be guided by these funda-
mental principles. That is to say, that Christ the Lord
instituted and formed the Church : wherefore when we are
asked what its nature is, the main thing is to see what
Christ wished, and what in fact He did. Judged by such a
criterion it is the unity of the Church which must be prin-
cipally coasidered; and of this, for the general good, it has
seemed useful to speak in this Encyclical.

It is so evident from the clear and frequent testimonies
of holy writ that the true Church of Jesus Christ is one,
that no Christian can dare to deny it. But in judging and
determining the nature of this unity many have erred in
various ways. Not the foundation of the Church alone,

' Horn. De capto Eutropio, n. 6. ' In Psalm. Ixx. n. 8.

* Enarratio in Psalm, ciii., aermo ii., n. 6.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 355

but its whole constitution, belongs to the class of things
effected by Christ's free choice. For this reason the entire
case must be judged by what was actually done. We
must consequently investigate not how the Church may
possibly be one, but how He, who founded it, willed that
it should be one. , -

But when we consider what was actually done we find
that Jesus Christ did not, in point of fact, institute a Church
to embrace several communities similar in nature, but in
themselves distinct, and lacking those bonds which render
the Church unique and indivisible after that manner in
which in the symbol of our faith we profess: "I believe in
one Church."

"The Church in respect of its unity belongs to the
category of things indivisible by nature, though heretics
try to divide it into many parts. . . . We say, therefore,
that the Cathohc Church is unique in its essence, in its
doctrine, in its origin, and in its excellence. . . . Further-
more, the eminence of the Church arises from its unity, as
the principle of its constitution — a unity surpassing all
else, and having nothing hke unto it or equal to it.^ For
this reason Christ, speaking of this mystical edifice, men-
tions only one Church, which He calls His own — "I will
build My Church"; any other Church except this one,
since it has not been founded by Christ, cannot be the
true Church. This becom.es even more evident when the
purpose of the divine Founder is considered. For what
did Christ the Lord ask? What did He wish in regard
to the Church founded, or about to be founded? This:
to transmit to it the same mission and the same mandate
which He had received from the Father, that they should
be perpetuated. This He clearly resolved to do: this
He actually did. As the Father hath sent Me, I also send
you? As thou hast sent Me into the world I also have sent
them into the world. ^

* S. Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromatum lib. viii., c. 17
*John XX. 21. »John xvii. 18.

356 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

But the mission of Christ is to save that which had
'perished; that is to say, not some nations or peoples, but
the whole human race, without distinction of time or
place. The Son of man came that the world might be saved
by Him} For there is no other rurnie under heaven given
to men whereby we must be saved.^ The Church, therefore,""
is bound to communicate without stint to all men, and
to transmit through all ages, the salvation effected by
Jesus Christ, and the blessings flowing therefrom. Where-
fore, by the wiU of its Founder, it is necessary that this
Church should be one in all lands and at all times. To
justify the existence of more than one Church it would
be necessary to go outside this world, and to create a new
and unheard-of race of men.

That the one Church should embrace all men every-
where and at all times was seen and foretold by Isaias,
when looking into the future he saw the appearance of a
mountain conspicuous by its all-surpassing altitude,
which set forth the image of "the house of the Lord"—
that is, of the Church. And in the last days the mountain
of the hov^e of the Lord shall be prepared on the top of the
mountains}

But this mountain which towers over all other moun-
tains is one; and the house of the Lord to which all na-
tions shall come to seek the rule of living is also one. "And
all nations shall flow unto it. And many peoples shall go, and
say: Come, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord,
and to the house of the God of Jacob, and He will teach us
His ways, and we will walk in His paths.*

Explaining this passage, Optatus of Milevis says: "It is
written in the prophet Isaias : ' From Sion the law shall go
forth, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.' For it is
not on Mount Sion that Isaias sees the valley, but on the
holy mountain; that is, the Church, which has raised it-
self conspicuously throughout the entiie Roman world

' John iii. 17. 'Acts iv. 12 »Isa. ii. 2. ■* Isa. ii. 2, 3.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. ZSJ

under the whole heavens. . . . The Church is, therefore,
the spu-itual Sion in which Christ has been constituted
King by God the Father, and which exists throughout
the entire earth, on which there is but one Catholic
Church,"^ And Augustine says: "What can be so
manifest as a mountain, or so well known? There are,
it is true, mountains which are unknown because they
are situated in some remote part of the earth. . . . But
this mountain is not miknown; for it has filled the whole
(ace of the world, and about this it is said that it is pre-
pared on the summit of the mountains. " ^
Furthermore, the Son of God decreed that the Church
-'^ should be His mystical body, with which He should be
^ united as the head, after the manner of the human body
which He assumed, to which the natural head is physio-
logically united. As He took to Himself a mortal body
which he gave to suffering and death in order to pay the
price of man's redemption, so also He has one mystical
body in which and through which He renders men par-
takers of holiness and of eternal salvation. God hath
made Him (Christ) head over all the Church, which is His
body.^ Scattered and separated members cannot possibly
cohere with the head so as to make one body. But St.
Paul says: All the members of the body, whereas they are
many, yet are one body, so also is Christ.* Wherefore
this mystical body, he declares, is compacted and fitly
joined together. The head, Christ: from whom the wJiole
body, being compacted and fitly joined tagether, by what
every joint supplieth, according to the operation in the meas-
ure of every part.^ And so dispersed members, separated one
from the other, cannot be united with one and the same
head. " There is one God, and one Christ; and His Church
is one and the faith is one; and one the people, joined
together in the solid unity of the body in the bond

* De Schism. Donatist. lib. iii. n. 2. ' Eph. i. 22, 23.

2 In Ep, Joan., tract i., n. 13. * 1 Cor. xii. 12.

"Eph. iv. 1.5, 16.

358 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

of concord. This unity cannot be broken, nor the one
body divided by the separation of its constituent parts.*
And to set forth more clearly the unity of the Church, he

m( makes iise of the illustration of a hving body, the members
of which cannot possibly live unless united to the head and
dra-vnng from it their vital force. Separated from the head
they must of necessity die. "The Church," he says,
"cannot be divided into parts by the separation and cut-
ting asunder of its members. What is cut away from
the mother cannot Hve or breathe apart. ^ What sim-
ilarity is there between a dead and a Hving bodj'^? For
no man ever hated his own flesh, hut nourisheth and cher-
isheth it, as also Christ doth the Church : because we are
members of His body, of His flesh, and of His bones. ^

<;^ Another head Hke to Christ must be invented — that is,
'another Christ — if besides the one Church, which is His
body, men wish to set up another. "See what you must
beware of — see what you must avoid — see what you must
dread. It happens that, as in the human body, some
member may be cut off — a hand, a finger, a foot. Does
the soul follow the amputated member? As long as it
was in the body it Hved ; separated, it forfeits its hfe. So
the Christian is a Cathohc as long as he lives in the body:
cut off from it he becomes a heretic — the life of the spirit
follows not the amputated member."*

The Church of Christ, therefore, is one and the same
forever; those who leave it depart from the will and com-
mand of Christ the Lord — leaving the path of salvation
they enter on that of perdition. "Whosoever is separated
from the Church is united to an adulteress. He has cut
himself off from the promises of the Church, and he who
leaves the Church of Christ cannot arrive at the rewards of
Christ. . . . He who observes not this unity observes not

> S. Cyprianus, De Cath. Eccl. Unitate, n. 23.

» Ibid."

» Eph. V. 29, 30.

* S. Augustinus, Sermo cclxvii., n. 4.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 359

the law of God, holds not the faith of the Father and the
Son, dings not to hfe and salvation."^

But He, indeed, who made this one Church, also gave
it unity, that is. He made it such that all who are to belong
to it must be united by the closest bonds, so as to form
one society, one kingdom, one body — one body and one
spirit, as you are called in one hope of your calling.^ Jesus
Christ, when His death was nigh at hand, declared His
will in this matter, and solemnly offered it up, thus ad-
dressing His Father: Not for them only do I pray, hut for
them also who through their word shall believe in Me . . .
that they also may be one in Us . . , that they may be made
perfect in one? Yea, He commanded that this unity
should be so closely knit and so perfect amongst His
followers that it might, in some m.easure, shadow forth
the union between Himself and His Father: / -pray that
they all may be one, as Thou, Father, in Me, and I in Thee}

Agreem^ent and union of minds is the necessary founda-
tion of this perfect concord am.ongst men, from which con-
currence of wills and similarity of action are the natural
results. Wherefore, in His divine wisdom. He ordained in
His Church Unity of Faith; a virtue which is the first of
those bonds which unite man to God, and whence we
receive the name of the faithful — one Lord, one faith, one
baptism.^ That is, as there is one Lord and one baptism,
so should all Christians, without exception, have but
one faith. And so the Apostle St. Paul not m.erely begs
but entreats and im.plores Christians to be all of the same
mind, and to avoid difference of opinions: / beseech you,
brethren, by the name of Our Lord Jesu^ Christ, that you
all speak the same thing, and that there be no schisms amongst
you, and thai you be perfect in the same mind and in the
same judgment.^ Such passages certainly need no in-
terpreter; they speak clearly enough for themselves.

'S. Cyprianus, De Cath. Eccl, Unita e, n. 6. * ^bid. 21.
» Eph. iv. 4. * Eph. iv. 6.

•John xvii. 20, 21, 23. • 1 Cor. i. 10.

360 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

Besides, all who profess Christianity allow that there can
be but one faith. It is of the greatest importance, and
indeed of absolute necessity, as to which many are de-
ceived, that the nature and character of this unity should
be recognized. And, as We have already stated, this
is not to be ascertained by conjecture, but by the cer-
tain knowledge of what was done; that is by seeking
for and ascertaining what kind of unity in faith has been
commanded by Jesus Christ.

The heavenly doctrine of Christ, although for the most
part committed to writing by divine inspiration, could not
unite the minds of men if left to the human intellect alone.
It would, for this very reason, be subject to various and
contradictory interpretations. This is so not only be-
cause of the nature of the doctrine itself and of the mys-
teries it involves, but also because of the divergencies
of the human mind and of the disturbing element of
confhcting passions. From a variety of interpretations a
variety of beliefs is necessarily begotten; hence come
controversies, dissensions, and wranglings such as have
arisen in the past, even in the first ages of the Church.
Irenaeus writes of heretics as follows: "Admitting the
Sacred Scriptures they distort the interpretations." ^ And
Augustine: "Heresies have arisen, and certain perverse
views ensnaring souls and precipitating them into the
abyss only when the Scriptures, good in themselves, are
not properly understood." * Besides holy writ it was
absolutely necessary to insure this union of men's minds — \t^^
to effect and preserve unity of ideas — that there should be
another principle. This the wisdom of God requires:
for He could not have willed that the faith should be one
if He did not provide means sufficient for the preserva-^
tion of this unity; and this holy writ clearly sets forth
as We shall presently point out. Assuredly the infinite
power of God is not bound by anything; all things obey

> Lib. iii., cap. 12, n. 12.

' In Evang. Joan., tract xviii., cap. 5, n. 1

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 361

it as so many passive instruments. In regard to this
external principle, therefore, we must inquire which one
of all the means in His power Christ did actually adopt.
For this purpose it is necessary to recall in thought the
institution of Christianity.

We are mindful only of what is witnessed to by holy
writ and what is otherwise well known. Christ proves His
own divinity and the divine origin of His mission by
miracles ; He teaches the multitudes heavenly doctrine by
word of mouth; and He absolutely commands that the
assent of faith should be given to His teaching, promising
eternal rewards to those who believe and eternal punish-
ment to those who do not. // I do not the works of My
Father, believe Me 7wt} If I had not done among them
the works that no other man hath done, they would not have
sin? But if I do (the works), though you will not believe
Me, believe the works? Whatsoever He commands. He
commands by the same authority. He requires the
assent of the mind to all truths without exception. It was
thus the duty of all who heard Jesus Christ, if they wished
for eternal salvation, not m.erely to accept His doctrine
as a whole, but to assent with their entire mind to all
and every point of it, since it is unlawful to withhold
faith from God even in regard to one single point.

When about to ascend into heaven He sends His apostles
in virtue of the same power by which He had been sent
from the Father; and He charges them to spread abroad
and propagate His teaching. All power is given to Me in
heaven and in earth. Going therefore teach all nations
. . . teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have
commanded you.* So that those obeying the apostles
might be saved, and those disobeying should perish. He
that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, but he that
believeth not shall be condemned.^ But since it is obviously
most in harmony with God's providence that no one
» John X. 37. » John xv. 24. ^ j^i^ ^ 33

* Matt, xxviii. 18, 19, 20. » Mark xvi. 16.

362 THE UNITY OF TEE CHURCH.

should have confided to him a great and important mis*
sion unless he were furnished with the means of properly
carrying it out, for this reason Christ promised that He
would send the Spirit of Truth to His disciples to remain
with them forever. But if I go I will send Him (the Par-
aclete) to you. . . . But when He, the Spirit of Truth, i«
come, He will teach you all truth. ^ And I will ask the
Father, and He shall give you another Paraclete, that He
may abide with you forever, the Spirit of Truth? He
shall give testimony of Me, and you shall give testimony.^
Hence He commands that the teaching of the apostles
should be rehgiously accepted and piously kept as if it
were His own — He who hears you hears Me, he who de-
spises you despises Me.* Wherefore the apostles are
ambassadors of Christ as He is the ambassador of the
Father. As the Father sent Me so also I send you.^ Hence
as the apostles and disciples were bound to obey Christ,
so also those whom the apostles taught were, by God's
command, bound to obey them. And, therefore, it was
no more allowable to repudiate one iota of the apostle'
teaching than it was to reject any point of the doctrine
of Christ EQmself.

Truly the voice of the apostles, when the Holy Ghost
had come down upon them, resounded throughout the
world. Wherever they went they proclaimed themselves
the ambassadors of Christ Himself. By whom (Jesus
Christ) we have received grace and apostleship for obedience
to the faith in all nations for His name.^ And God makes
known their divine mission by numerous miracles. But
they going forth preached everywhere: the Lord working
withal, and confirming the word with signs that followed.''
But what is this word? That which comprehends all
things, that wliich they had learnt from their Master;
because they openly and publicly declare that they cannot
help speaking of what they had seen and heard.

» John x\'i. 7-13. » Ibid. xiv. 16, 17. ' Ibid. xv. 26, 27.
♦ Luke X. 16. > John xx. 21. • Rom. i. 5. ' Mark xvi. 80.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 363

But, as We have already said, the apostolic mission was
not destined to die with the apostles themselves, or to
come to an end in the course of time, since it was intended
for the people at large and instituted for the salvation of
the human race. For Christ commanded His apostles to
preach the "Gospel to every creature, to carry His name
to nations and kings, and to be witnesses to Him to the
ends of the earth." He further promised to assist them
in the fulfilment of their high mission, and that, not for a
few years or centuries only, but for all time — "even to the
consimimation of the world." Upon which St. Jerome
Bays: "He who promises to remain with His disciples to
the end of the world declares that they will be forever
victorious, and that He will never depart from those who
beheve in Him." * But how could all this be realized in
the apostles alone, placed as they were under the universal
law of dissolution by death? It was consequently pro-
vided by God that the Magisterium instituted by Jesus
Christ should not end with the fife of the apostles, but
that it should be perpetuated. We see it in truth propa-
gated, and, as it were, delivered from hand to hand.
For the apostles consecrated bishops, and each one ap-
pointed those who were to succeed them immediately
"in the ministry of the Word."

Nay more: they Ukewise required their successors to
choose fitting men, to endow them with like authority,
and to confide to them the office and mission of teaching.
Thou, therefore, my son, he strong in the grace which is
in Christ JesiLs: and the things which thou hast heard of
me by many witnesses, the same command to faithful men,
who shall be fit to teach others also? Wherefore, as Christ
was sent by God and the apostles by Christ, so the bishops
and those who succeeded them were sent by the apostles.
"The apostles were appointed by Christ to preach the
Gospel to us. Jesus Christ was sent by God. Christ is

» In Matt., lib. iv., cap. 28, v. 20. » 2 Tim. ii. 1, 2.

364 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

therefore from God, and the apostles from Christ, and
both according to the will of God. . . . Preaching there-
fore the word through the countries and cities, when
they had proved in the Spirit the first-fruits of their
teaching they appointed bishops and deacons for the
faithful. . . . They appointed them and then ordained
them, so that when they themselves had passed away
other tried men should carry on their ministry." ^ On
the one hand, therefore, it is necessary that the mission of
teaching whatever Christ had taught should remain per-
petual and immutable, and on the other that the duty of
accepting and professing all their doctrine should like-
wise be perpetual and immutable. "Our Lord Jesus
Christ, when in His Gospel He testifies that those who
are not with Him are His enemies, does not designate
any special form of heresy, but declares that all heretics
who are not with Him and do not gather with Him, scatter
His flock and are His adversaries: He that is not with
Me is against Me, and he that gathereth not with Me
scattereth." ^

The Church, founded on these principles and mindful
of her office, has done nothing with greater zeal and en-
deavor than she has displayed in guarding the integrity
of the faith. Hence she regarded as rebels and expelled
from the ranks of her children all who held behefs on any
point of doctrine different from her own. The Arians, the
Montanists, the Novatians, the Quartodecimans, the Euty-
chians, did not certainly reject all Cathohc doctrine: they
abandoned only a certain portion of it. Still who does not
know that they were declared heretics and banished from
the bosom of the Church? In like manner were con-
demned all authors of heretical tenets who followed them
in subsequent ages. "There can be nothing more dan-
gerous than those heretics who admit nearly the whole
cycle of doctrine, and yet by one word, as with a drop of

' S. Clemens Rom. Epist. I. ad Corinth, capp. 42, 46.
' S. Cyprianus, Ep. Ixix. ad Magnum, n. 1.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH, 365

poison, infect the real and simple faith taught by Our Lord
and handed down by apostolic tradition." *

The practice of the Church has always been the same, as
is shown by the unanimous teaching of the Fathers, who
were wont to hold as outside Catholic communion, and
alien to the Church, whoever would recede in the least
degree from any point of doctrine proposed by her authori-
tative Magisterium. Epiphanius, Augustine, Theodoret,
drew up a long list of the heresies of their times. St.
Augustine notes that other heresies may spring up, to a
single one of which, should any one give his assent, he is
by the very fact cut off from CathoUc imity. "No one
who merely disbelieves in all (these heresies) can for that
reason regard himself as a Catholic or call himself one.
For there may be or may arise some other heresies, which
are not set out in this work of ours, and if any one holds
to one single one of these he is not a CathoHc." ^

The need of this divinely instituted means for the preser-
vation of unity, about which We speak, is urged by St.
Paul in his epistle to the Ephesians. In this he first ad-
monishes them to preserve with every care concord of
minds : Solicitous to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond
of peace.^ And as souls cannot be perfectly united in
charity unless minds agree in faith, he wishes all to hold
the same faith: One Lord, one faith, and this so perfectly
one as to prevent all danger of error: that henceforth we
be no more children, tossed to and fro, and carried about
with every vrind of doctrine by the wickedness of men, by
cunning craftiness, by which they lie in wait to deceive;*
and this he teaches is to be observed, not for a time only,
but until we all meet in the unity of faith . . . unto the
measure of the age of the fulness of Christ.^ But, in what
has Christ placed the primary principle, and the means
of preserving this unity? In that — He gave some apostles

' Auctor Tract, de Fide Orthodoxa contra Arianos.

' S. Augustinus, De Haeresibus, n. 88. * Eph. iv, 14.

' Eph. iv. 3, et seq. * Eph. iv. 13.

366 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

. . . and other some pastors and doctors, for the perfecting of
the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of
the body of Christ}

Wherefore, from the very earliest tunes the Fathers and
Doctors of the Church have been accustomed to follow and
with one accord to defend this rule. Origen writes: "As
often as the heretics allege the possession of the canonical
scriptures, to which all Christians give unanimous assent,
they seem to say: 'Behold the word of truth is in the
houses.' But we should believe them not and abandon not
the primary and ecclesiastical tradition. We should be-
lieve not otherwise than has been handed down by the
tradition of the Church of God."' Irenseus too says:
"The doctrine of the apostles is the true faith . . . which
is known to us through the episcopal succession . . .
which has reached even unto our age by the very fact that
the Scriptures have been zealously guarded and fully in-
terpreted."' And Tertullian: "It is therefore clear that
all doctrine which agrees with that of the apostohc churches
— the matrices and original centres of the faith — must be
looked upon as the truth, holding without hesitation
that the Church received it from the apostles, the apostles
from Christ, and Christ from God. . . . We are in com-
munion with the apostohc churches, and by the very
fact that they agree amongst themselves we have a testi-
mony of the truth."* And so Hilary: "Christ teaching
from the ship signifies that those who are outside the
Church can never grasp the divine teaching; for the
ship typifies the Church where the word of life is deposited
and preached. Those who are outside are Uke sterile
and worthless sand: they cannot comprehend."* Ru-
finus praises Gregory of Nazianzum and Basil because

»Eph. iv. 11, 12.

* Vetus Interpretatio Conunentariorum in Matt. n. 46.

* Contra Haereses, lib. iv., cap. 33, an. 8.

* De Prajscript., cap. xxxi.

' Comment, in Matt. xiii. n. 1.

THE UNITY OF THE CHUBCH. 367

" they studied the text of Holy Scripture alone, and took
the interpretation of its meaning not from their own inner
consciousness, but from the writings and on the authority
of the ancients, who in their turn, as it is clear, took their
rule for understanding the meaning from the apostolic
succession," ^

Wherefore, as appears from what has been said, Christ
izistituted in the Church a living, authoritative, and perma-
nent Magisterium, which by His own power He strength-
ened, by the Spirit of Truth He taught, and by miracles
confirmed. He willed and ordered, imder the gravest
penalties, that its teachings should be received as if they
were His own. As often, therefore, as it is declared on
the authority of this teaching that this or that is con-
tained in the deposit of divine revelation, it must be
beUeved by every one as true. If it could in any way
be false, an evident contradiction follows; for then God
Himself would be the author of error in man. "Lord, if
we be in error, we are being deceived by Thee."' In
this wise, all cause for doubting being removed, can it
be lawful for any one to reject any one of those truths
without by the very fact falUng into heresy? — without
separating himself from the Church? — without repudiating
in one sweeping act the whole of Christian teaching?
For such is the nature of faith that nothing can be more
absurd than to accept some things and reject others.
Faith, as the Church teaches, is "that supernatural
virtue by which, through the help of God and through
the assistance of His grace, we beheve what He has re-
vealed to be true, not on account of the intrinsic tinith
perceived by the natural hght of reason, but because of
the authority of God Himself, the Revealer, who can
neither deceive nor be deceived." ' If then it be certain
that anything is revealed by God, and this is not beheved,

• Hist. Eccl., lib. ii., c p. 9.

' Richardus de S. Victore, De Trin., lib. i., cap. 2.

* Cone. Vat., Sesa. iii., cap. 3.

368 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

then nothing whatever is believed by divine faith: for
what the Apostle St. James judges to be the effect of a
moral delinquency, the same is to be said of an erroneous
opinion in the matter of faith. Whosoever shall offend
in one point, is become guilty of all} Nay, it applies with
greater force to an erroneous opinion. For it can be
said with less truth that every law is violated by one
who commits a single sin, since it may be that he only
virtually despises the majesty of God the Legislator.
But he who dissents even in one point from divinely
revealed truth absolutely rejects all faith, since he thereby
refuses to honor God as the supreme truth and the formal
motive of faith. "In many things they are with me, in a
few things not with me; but in those few things in which
they are not with me the many things in which they are
will not profit them." ^ And this indeed most deservedly;
for they who take from Christian doctrine what they
please lean on their own judgments, not on faith; and
not bringing into captivity every understanding unto
the obedience of Christ,^ they more truly obey them-
selves than God. "You, who believe what you like of
the gospels and believe not what you like, beheve your-
selves rather than the gospel." *

For this reason the Fathers of the Vatican Council laid
down nothing new, but followed divine revelation and the
acknowledged and invariable teaching of the Church as to
the very nature of faith, when they decreed as follows:
"All those things are to be believed by divine and Catholic
faith which are contained in the written or unwritten word
of God, and which are proposed by the Church as divinely
revealed, either by a solemn definition or in the exercise of
its ordinary and universal Magisterium." * Hence, as it

* James ii. 10.

* S. Augustinus in Psal. liv., n. 19.
»2 Cor. X. 5.

* S. Augustinus, lib. xvii., Contra Faustum Manichaeum, cap. 3.
» Se99. iii., cap. 3.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 369

is clear that God absolutely willed that there should be
unity in His Church, and as it is evident what kind of
unity He willed, and by means of what principle He
ordained that this unity should be maintained, We may
address the following words of St. Augustine to all who
have not deliberately closed their minds to the truth:
"When we see the great help of God, such manifest prog-
ress and such abundant fruit, shall we hesitate to take
refuge in the bosom of that Church which, as is evident to
all, possesses the supreme authority of the Apostolic See
through the episcopal succession? In vain do heretics
rage round it ; they are condemned partly by the judgment
of the people themselves, partly by the weight of councils,
partly by the splendid evidence of miracles. To refuse to
the Church the primacy is most impious and above measure
arrogant. And if all learning, no matter how easy and
common it may be, in order to be fully understood re-
quires a teacher and master, what can be greater evidence
of pride and rashness than to be unwilling to leam about
the books of the divine mysteries from the proper inter-
preter, and to wish to condemn them unknown?"^

It is, then, undoubtedly the office of the Church to guard f ■ -? ;
Christian doctrine and to propagate it in its integrity and
purity. But this is not all: the object for which the
Church has been instituted is not wholly attained by the
performance of this duty. For, since Jesus Christ de-
livered Himself up for the salvation of the human race, and
to this end directed all His teaching and commands, so He
ordered the Church to strive, by the truth of its doctrine,
to sanctify and to save mankind. But faith alone cannot
compass so great, excellent, and important an end. There
must needs be also the fitting and devout worship of God,
which is to be found chiefly in the divine sacrifice and in
the dispensation of the sacraments, as well as salutary laws
and discipline. All these must be found in the Church,

' De Unitate Credendi, cap. xvii. q. 35.

370 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

since it continues the mission of the Saviour forever. The
Church alone offers to the human race that reUgion — that
state of absolute perfection — which He wished, as it were,
to be incorporated in it. And it alone supplies those means
of salvation which accord with the ordinary counsels of
Providence,

But as this heavenly doctrine was never left to the
arbitrary judgment of private individuals, but in the
beginning delivered by Jesus Christ, was afterwards
committed by Him exclusively to the Magisterivun already
named, so the power of performing and administering the
divine mysteries, together with the authority of ruling and
governing, was not bestowed by God on all Christians
indiscriminately, but on certain chosen persons. For to
the apostles and their legitimate successors alone these
words have reference: " Going into the whole world preach
the Gospel." " Baptizing them." " Do this in commemora-
tion of Me." "Whose sins you shall forgive they are for-
given them." And in like manner He ordered the apostles
only and those who should lawfully succeed them to feed —
that is to govern with authority — all Christian souls.
Whence it also follows that it is necessarily the duty of
Christians to be subject and to obey. And these duties
of the apostolic office are, in general, all included in the
words of St. Paul: Let a man so account of us as of the
ministers of Christ, and the dispensers of the mysteries of
God.'

Wherefore Jesus Christ bade all men, present and
future, follow Him as their leader and Saviour; and
this not merely as individuals, but as forming a society,
organized and united in mind. In this way a duly con-
stituted society should exist, formed out of the divided
multitude of peoples, one in faith, one in end, one in the
participation of the means adapted to the attainment of
the end, and one as subject to one and the same authority.

» 1 Cor. iv. 1.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 371

To this end He established in the Church all those prin-
ciples which necessarily tend to make organized human
societies, and through which they attain the perfection
proper to each. That is, in it (the Church) all who wished
to be the sons of God by adoption might attain to the
perfection demanded by their high calling, and might
obtain salvation. The Church, therefore, as we have
said, is man's guide to whatever peri;ains to heaven.
This is the office appointed unto it by God: that it may
watch over and may order all that concerns religion, and
may, without let or hindrance, exercise, according to its
judgment, its charge over Christianity. Wherefore they
who pretend that the Church has any wish to interfere
in civil matters, or to infringe upon the rights of the
State, know it not, or wickedly caliminiate it.

God indeed even made the Church a society far more
perfect than any other. For the end for which the Church
exists is as much higher than the end of other societies as
divine grace is above nature, as immortal blessings are
above the transitory things on the earth. Therefore the
Church is a society divine in its origin, supernatural in its
end and in the means proximately adapted to the attain-
ment of that end ; but it is a human community inasmuch
as it is composed of men. For this reason we find it called
in holy writ by names indicating a perfect society. It is
spoken of as the house of God, the city placed upon the
mountain to which all nations must come. But it is also
the fold presided over by one Shepherd, and into which
all Christ's sheep must betake themselves. Yea, it is called
the kingdom which God has raised up and which will stand
forever. Finally it is the body of Christ — ^that is, of course,
His mystical body, but a body Hving and duly organized
and composed of many members; members indeed which
have not all the same functions, but which, united one
to the other, are kept bound together by the guidance
and authority of the head.

Indeed no true and perfect human society can be con-

372 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH

ceived which is not governed by some supreme authority.
Christ therefore must have given to His Church a supreme
authority to which all Christians must render obedience.
For this reason, as the unity of the faith is of necessity
required for the imity of the Church, inasmuch as it is the
body of the faithful, so also for this same unity, inasmuch
as the Church is a divinely constituted society, unity of
government, which effects and involves unity of communion,
is necessary jure divino. "The unity of the Church is
manifested in the mutual connection or communication of
its members, and likewise in the relation of all the members
of the Church to one head." ^

From this it is easy to see that men can fall away from
the unity of the Church by schism, as well as by heresy.
"We think that this difference exists between heresy and
schism" (writes St. Jerome): "heresy has no perfect
dogmatic teaching, whereas schism, through some epis-
copal dissent, also separates from the Church. "^ In
which judgment St. John Chrysostom concurs: "I say
and protest," he writes, "that it is as wrong to divide
the Church as to fall into heresy."^ Wherefore as no
heresy can ever be justifiable, so in like manner there
can be no justification for schism. "There is nothing
more grievous than the sacrilege of schism . . . there
can be no just necessity for destroying the unity of the
Church." *

The nature of this supreme authority, which all Chris-
tians are bound to obey, can be ascertained only by finding
out what was the evident and positive will of Christ.
Certainly Christ is a King forever; and though invisible,
He continues unto the end of time to govern and guard
His Church from heaven. But since He willed that His
kingdom should be visible He was obliged, when He

» St. Thomas, 2a 2se 9, xxxix. a. 1.

^ S. Hieronymus, Comment, in Epist. ad Titum, cap. iii., v. 10, 11.

* Horn, xi., in Epist. ad Ephes., n. 5.

* S. Augustinus, Contra Epistolam Parmeniani, lib. ii., cap. ii.^
n.25.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 373

ascended into heaven, to designate a vicegerent on earth.
"Should any one say that Christ is the one head and the
one shepherd, the one spouse of the one Church, he does
not give an adequate reply. It is clear, indeed, that Christ
is the author of grace in the sacraments of the Church; it
is Christ Himself who baptizes; it is He who forgives
sins ; it is He who is the true priest who hath offered Him-
self upon the altar of the cross, and it is by His power that
His body is daily consecrated upon the altar; and stiJI,
because He was not to be visibly present to all the faithful,
He made choice of ministers through whom the aforesaid
sacraments should be dispensed to the faithful as said
above." ^ '"'For the same reason, therefore, because He
was about to withdraw His visible presence from the
Church, it was necessary that He should appoint some one
in His place, to have the charge of the universal Church.
Hence before His ascension He said to Peter, 'Feed My
sheep,'" ^

Jesus Christ, therefore, appointed Peter to be the head
of the Church ; and He also determined that the authority
instituted in perpetuity for the salvation of all should be
inherited by His successors, in whom the same permanent
authority of Peter himself should continue. And so He
made that remarkable promise to Peter and to no one else :
Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church.^
"To Peter the Lord spoke: to one, therefore, that He
might establish unity upon one."* "Without any pre-
lude He mentions St. Peter's name and that of his father
(Blessed art thou Simon, son of John) and He does not
wish Him to be called any more Simon; claiming him
for Himself according to His divine authority. He aptly
names him Peter, from petra the rock, since upon him He
was about to found His Church." ^

» Cap. 74.

* St. Thomas, Contra Gentiles, lib. iv., cap. 76.
'Matt. xvi. 18.

* S. Pacianus ad Sempronirim, Ep. iii., n. 11.

' S. Cyrillus Alexandrinu.s, in Evang. Joan., lib. ii., in cap. i. v. 42.

374 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

From this text it is clear that by the will and com-
mand of God the Church rests upon St. Peter, just as a
building rests on its foundation. Now the proper nature
of a foundation is to be a principle of cohesion for the
various parts of the building. It must be the necessary
conditions of stability and strength. Remove it and the
whole building falls. It is consequently the office of St.
Peter to support the Church, and to guard it in all its
strength and indestructible unity. How could he fulfil
this office without the power of commanding, forbidding,
and judging, which is properly called jurisdiction? It
is only by this power of jurisdiction that nations and
conunonwealths are held together. A primacy of honor
and the shadowy right of giving advice and admonition,
which is called direction, could never secure to any society
of men unity or strength. The words — and the gates of
hell shall not prevail against it — proclaim and estabhsh
the authority of which we speak. "What is the it?"
(writes Origen). "Is it the rock upon which Christ
builds the Church, or the Church? The expression indeed
is ambiguous, as if the rock and the Church were one and
the same. I indeed think that this is so, and that neither
against the rock upon which Clirist builds His Church
nor against the Church shall the gates of hell prevail."*
The meaning of this divine utterance is, that, notwith-
standing the wiles and intrigues which they bring to bear
against the Church, it can never be that the Church com-
mitted to the care of Peter shall succumb or in any wise
fail. "For the Church, as the edifice of Christ w^ho has
wisely built 'His house upon a rock,' cannot be conquered
by the gates of hell, which may prevail over any man
who shall be off the rock and outside the Church, but
shall be powerless against it." * Therefore God con-
fided His Church to Peter so that he might safely guard it
with his unconquerable power. He invested him, there-

* Origenes, Comment, in Matt., torn, xii., n. ii.
» Ibid.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 376

fore, with the needful authority; since the right to rule b
absolutely required by him who has to guard human
society really and effectively. This, furthermore, Christ
gave: "To thee will I give the keys of the kingdom of
heaven." And He is clearly still speaking of the Church,
which a short time before He had called His own, and
which He declared He wished to build on Peter as on a
foundation. The Church is typified not only as an edifice
but as a kingdom, and every one knows that the keys
constitute the usual sign of governing authority. Where-
fore when Christ promised to give to Peter the keys of
the kingdom of heaven, He promised to give him power
and authority over the Church. "The Son committed
to Peter the office of spreading the knowledge of His
Father and Himself over the whole world. He who in-
creased the Church in all the earth, and proclaimed it
to be stronger than the heavens, gave to a mortal man
all power in heaven when He handed him the ke)^." *
In this same sense He says: "Whatsoever thou shall
bind upon earth it shall be bound also in heaven, and
whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth it shall be loosed
also in heaven." This metaphorical expression of bind-
ing and loosing indicates the power of making laws, of
judging and of punishing; and the power is said to be of
such amplitude and force that God will ratify whatever
is decreed by it. Thus it is supreme and absolutely in-
dependent, so that, having no other power on earth as
its superior, it embraces the whole Church and all things
committed to the Church.

The promise is carried out when Christ the Lord after
His Resurrection, having thrice asked Peter whether he
loved Him more than the rest, lays on him the injunction:
"Feed My lambs— feed My sheep." That is He confides
to him, without exception, all those who were to belong to
His fold. "The Lord does not hesitate. He interrogates,
not to learn but to teach. When He was about to ascend

^ S. Johanna Chrysostomus, Horn, liv., in Matt, v- 2

376 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

into heaven He left us, as it were, a vicegerent of His
love . . . and so because Peter alone of all others pro-
fesses his love he is preferred to all — that being the most
perfect he should govern the more perfect." *

These, then, are the duties of a shepherd : to place him-
self as leader at the head of his flock, to provide proper
food for it, to ward off dangers, to guard against insidious
foes, to defend it against violence: in a word, to rule and
govern it. Since therefore Peter has been placed as shep-
herd of the Christian flock he has received the power of
governing all men for whose salvation Jesus Christ shed
His blood. "Why has He shed His blood? To buy the
sheep which He handed over to Peter and his successors." '

And since all Christians must be closely united in the
communion of one immutable faith, Christ the Lord, in
virtue of His prayers, obtained for Peter that in the ful-
filment of his office he should never fall away from the
faith. But I have asked for thee that thy faith fail not," *
and He furthermore commanded him to impart light and
strength to his brethren as often as the need should arise:
Confirm thy brethren* He willed then that he whom
He had designated as the foundation of the Church should
be the defence of its faith. " Could not Christ, who con-
fided to him the kingdom by His own authority, have
strengthened the faith of one whom He designated a
rock to show the foundation of the Church ? " * For this
reason Jesus Christ willed that Peter should participate
in certain names, signs of great things which properly
belong to Himself alone: in order that identity of titles
should show identity of power. So He who is Himself
the chief comer-stone in whom all the building being framed

* S. Ambrosius, Exposit. in Evang. secundum Lucam, lib. x,
nn. 175,176.

*S. Johannes Chrysoslomus, De Sacerdotio, lib. ii.
' Luke xxii. 32.

* Ibid.

» S. Ambrosius, De Fide, lib. iv., n. 56.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 377

together, groweth up in a holy temple in the Lord,^ placed
Peter as it were a stone to support the Church. "When
he heard thou art a rock, he was ennobled by the announce-
ment. Although he is a rock, not as Christ is a rock,
but as Peter is a rock. For Christ is by His very being
an immovable rock ; Peter only through this rock, Christ
imparts His gifts, and is not exhausted . . . He is a
priest, and makes priests. He is a rock, and constitutes
a rock." ^ He who is the King of His Church, who hath
the key of David, who openeth and no man shutteth, who
shutteth and no man openeth,^ having delivered the keys
to Peter declared him Prince of the Christian common-
wealth. So, too, He, the Great Shepherd, who calls
Himself the Good Shepherd, constituted Peter the pastor
of His lambs and sheep. Feed My lambs, feed My sheep.
Wherefore Chrysostom says: "He was pre-eminent among
the apostles: He was the mouthpiece of the apostles
and the head of the apostolic college ... at the same
time showing him that henceforth he ought to have
confidence, and as it were blotting out his denial. He
commits to him the government of his brethren . . .
He saith to him: 7/ thou lovest Me, be over My brethren.'"
Finally He who confirms in enyery good work and word*
commands Peter to confirm his brethren.

Rightly, therefore, does St. Leo the Great say: "From
the whole world Peter alone is chosen to take the lead in
calling all nations, to be the head of all the apostles and
of all the Fathers of the Church. So that, although in the
people of God there are many priests and many pastors,
Peter should by right rale all of those over whom Christ
Himself is the chief raler."^ And so St. Gregory the
Great, writing to the Emperor Maurice Augustus, says;

' Eph. ii. 21.

' Horn, de Poenitentia, n. 4 in Appendice opp. S. Basilii.

' Apoc. iii. 7.

♦ 2 Thess. ii. 16.

*Senno iv., cap. 2.

378 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

" It is evident to all who know the Gospel that the charge
of the whole Church was committed to St. Peter, the
apostle and prince of all the apostles, by the word of
the Lord. . . . Behold! he hath received the keys of the
heavenly kingdom — ^the power of binding and loosing is
conferred upon him: the care of the whole government of
the Church is confided to him." ^

It was necessary that a government of this kind, since
it belongs to the constitution and formation of the Church,
as its principal element — that is as the principle of unity
and the foundation of lasting stabihty — should in no wise
come to an end with St. Peter, but should pass to his
successors from one to another. "There remains, there-
fore, the ordinance of truth, and St. Peter, persevering in
the strength of the rock which he had received, hath not
abandoned the government of the Church which had been
confided to him."^ For this reason the Pontiffs who
succeed Peter in the Roman Episcopate receive the su-
preme power in the Church, jure divino. "We define"
(declare the Fathers of the Coimcil of Florence) "that the
Holy and Apostohc See and the Roman Pontiff holds th«
primacy of the Church throughout the whole world:
and that the same Roman Pontiff is the successor of St.
Peter, the prince of the apostles, and the true Vicar of
Christ, the head of the whole Church, and the father and
teacher of all Christians; and that full power was given
to him, in blessed Peter, by Our Lord Jesus Christ to
feed, to rule, and to govern the universal Church, as
is also contained in the acts of oecumencial councils and
in the sacred canons." ' Similarly the Fourth Council
of Lateran declares: "The Roman Church, as the mother
and mistress of all the faithful, by the will of Christ ob-
tains primacy of jurisdiction over all other Churches."
These declarations were preceded by the consent of an-
tiquity which ever acknowledged, without the slightest

* Epist. lib. V. Epist. xx ' S. Leo M. sermo iii., cap. 3.
* Cone. Florentinum.

THE UNITY _0F THE CHURCH. 379

doubt or hesitation, the Bishops of Rome, and revered
them, as the legitimate successors of St. Peter.

Who is unaware of the many and evident testimonies of
the holy Fathers which exist to this effect? Most remark-
able is that of St. Irenaeus, who, referring to the Roman
Church, says: "With this Church, on account of its pre-
eminent authority, it is necessary that every Church
ehould be in concord; " * and St, Cyprian also says of the
Roman Church, that "it is the root and mother of the
Catholic Church, the chair of Peter, and the principal
Church whence sacerdotal unity has its source." ^ He
calls it the chair of Peter because it is occupied by the
successor of Peter; he calls it the principal Church, on
account of the primacy conferred on Peter himself and
his legitimate successors ; and the source of unity , because
the Roman Church is the efficient cause of unity in the
Christian commonwealth. For this reason Jerome ad-
dresses Damasus thus: "My words are spoken to the
successor of the Fisherman, to the disciple of the cross.
... I communicate with none save your Blessedness,
that is with the chair of Peter. For this I know is the
rock on which the Church is built." ^ Union with the
Roman See of Peter is to him always the public criterion
of a Catholic. "I acknowledge every one who is united
with the See of Peter."* And for a like reason St. Augus-
tine publicly attests that "the primacy of the Apostolic
chair always existed in the Roman Church;"" and he
denies that any one who dissents from the Roman faith
can be a Catholic. "You are not to be looked upon as
holding the true Catholic faith if you do not teach that
the faith of Rome is to be held.". ' So, too, St. Cyprian:

' Contra Haereses, lib. iii., cap. 3, n. 2.

' Ep. xlviii, ad Cornelium, n. 3. and Ep. lix., ad eundem, n. 14.

' Ep. XV., ad Damasum, n. 2.

* Ep. xvi., ad Damasum, n. 2.

'Ep. xliii. n. 7.

*Sermo cxx. n. 13.

380 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

"To be in conimunion with Cornelius is to be in com-
munion with the Catholic Church." ^ In the same way
Maximus the Abbot teaches that obedience to the Roman
Pontiff is the proof of the true faith and of legitimate
communion, " Therefore if a man does not want to be,
or to be called, a heretic, let him not strive to please this
or that man . . . but let him hasten before all things
to be in communion with the Roman See. If he be in
communion with it, he should be acknowledged by all
and everywhere as faithful and orthodox. He speaks
in vain who tries to persuade me of the orthodoxy of those
who, like himself, refuse obedience to his Holiness the
Pope of the most holy Church of Rome; that is to the
Apostolic See." The reason and motive of this he ex-
plains to be that "the Apostolic See has received and hath
govermnent, authority, and power of binding and loosing
from the Incarnate Word Himself; and, according to all
holy synods, sacred canons and decrees, in all things and
through all things, in respect of all the holy churches of
God throughout the whole world, since the Word in
heaven who rules the heavenly powers binds and loosens
there."'

Wherefore what was acknowledged and observed as
Christian faith, not by one nation only nor in one age, but
by the East and by the West, and through aU ages, this
Philip, the priest, the Pontifical legate at the Council of
Ephesus, no voice being raised in dissent, recalls: "No
one can doubt, yea, it is known unto all ages, that St.
Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, the pillar of the faith
and the ground of the Catholic Church, received the keys
of the kingdom from Our Lord Jesus Christ. That is:
the power of forgiving and retaining sins was given to him
who, up to the present time, lives and exercises judgment
in the persons of his successors." ' The pronouncement

> Ep. Iv., n. 1.

• Defloratio ex Epistola ad Petrum Ulustrem.

'Actio iii.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 381

of the Council of Chalcedon on the same matter is present
to the minds of all: "Peter has spoken through Leo," *
to which the voice of the Third Council of Constantinople
responds as an echo: "The chief Prince of the Apostles
was fighting on our side: for we have had as our ally his
follower and the successor to his see: and the paper and
the ink were seen, and Peter spoke through Agatho.'"

In the formula of Catholic faith drawn up and proposed
by Hormisdas, which was subscribed at the beginning of
the sixth century in the great Eighth Council by the
Emperor Justinian, by Epiphanius, John and Menna, the
Patriarchs, this same is declared with great weight and
solemnity. "For the pronouncement of Our Lord Jesus
Christ saying: 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I mil
build My Church/ etc., cannot be passed over. What is
said is proved by the result, because Catholic faith has
always been preserved without stain in the Apostolic See." '
We have no wish to quote every available declaration; but
it is well to recall the formula of faith which Michael
Paleologus professed in the Second Council of Lyons:
"The same holy Roman Church possesses the sovereign
and plenary primacy and authority over the whole CathoUc
Church, which, truly and humbly, it acknowledges to have
received together with the plenitude of power from the
Lord HimseK, in the person of St. Peter, the Prince or
Head of the Apostles, of whom the Roman Pontiff is the
successor. And as it is bound to defend the truth of faith
beyond all others, so also if any question should arise con-
cerning the faith it must be determined by its judgment." *

But if the authority of Peter and his successors is
plenary and supreme, it is not to be regarded as the sole
authority. For He who made Peter the foundation of the
Church also chose twelve, whom He called apostles;^ and

' Actio ii.

' Actio xviii.

' Post Epistolam, TSLvi.; ad omnes Episc. Hispan., n. 4.

* Actio iv.

•Luke vi. 13.

382 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

just as it is necessary that the authority of Peter should
be perpetuated in the Roman Pontiff, so, by the fact
that the bishops succeed the apostles, they inherit their
ordinary power, and thus the episcopal order necessarily
belongs to the essential constitution of the Church. Al-
though they do not receive plenary, or universal, or
supreme authority, they are not to be looked upon as vicars
of the Roman Pontiffs; because they exercise a power
really their own, and are most truly called the ordinary
pastors of the peoples over whom they rule.

But since the successor of Peter is one, and those of the
apostles are many, it is necessary to examine into the
relations which exist between him and them according to
the divine constitution of the Church. Above all things
the need of union between the bishops and the successors
of Peter is clear and undeniable. This bond once broken,
Christians would be separated and scattered, and would in
no wise form one body and one flock. "The safety of the
Church depends on the dignity of the chief priest, to
whom if an extraordinary and supreme power is not
given, there are as many schisms to be expected in the
Church as there are priests." ^ It is necessary, therefore,
to bear this in mind, viz., that nothing was conferred on
the apostles apart from Peter, but that several things
were conferred upon Peter apart from the apostles. St.
John Chrysostom in explaining the words of Christ asks:
"Why, passing over the others, does He speak to Peter
about these things?" And he replies unhesitatingly
and at once, "Because he was pre-eminent among the
apostles, the mouthpiece of the disciples, and the head
of the college." ^ He alone was designated as the founda-
tion of the Church. To him He gave the power of binding
and loosing; to him alone was given the power of feeding.
On the other hand, whatever authority and office the
apostles received, they received in conjunction with

' S. Hieronymus, Dialog, contra Luciferianos, n. 9.
*Hom. Ixxxviii. in Joan., n. 1.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 383

Peter. "If the divine benignity willed anything to be
in common between him and the other princes, whatever
He did not deny to the others He gave only through him.
So that whereas Peter alone received many things, He
conferred nothing on any of the rest without Peter par-
ticipating in it." ^

From this it must be clearly understood that bishops
are deprived of the right and power of ruling, if they
deliberately secede from Peter and his successors ; because,
by this secession, they are separated from the foundation
on which the whole edifice must rest. They are therefore
outside the edifice itself ; and for this very reason they are
separated from the fold, whose leader is the Chief Pastor;
they are exiled from the Kingdom, the keys of which were
given by Christ to Peter alone.

These things enable us to see the heavenly ideal, and the
divine exemplar of the constitution of the Christian
commonwealth, namely: When the divine Founder
decreed that the Church should be one in faith, in gov-
ernment, and in communion, He chose Peter and his
successors as the principal and centre, as it were, of this
unity. Wherefore St. Cyprian says: "The following is a
short and easy proof of the faith. The Lord saith to Peter:
*I say to thee thou art Peter'; on him alone He buildeth
His Church; and although after His Resurrection He gives
a similar power to all the apostles and says: *As the
Father hath sent me,' etc., still in order to make the
need of unity clear, by His own authority He laid down
the source of that unity as beginning from one." ' And
Optatus of Milevis says: '* You cannot deny that you
know that in the city of Rome the Episcopal chair was
first conferred on Peter. In this Peter, the head of all
the apostles (hence his name Cephas), has sat; in which
chair alone unity was to be preserved for all, lest any of
the other apostles should claim anything as exclusively
his own. So much so, that he who would place another

' S. Leo M. senno iv., c»p. 2, * De Unit, Eccl., n. 4.

384 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

chair against that one chair, would be a schismatic and a
sinner." ^ Hence the teaching of Cyprian, that heresy
and schism arise and are begotten from the fact that
due obedience is refused to the supreme authority. "Here-
sies and schisms have no other origin than that obedience
is refused to the priest of God, and that men lose sight
of the fact that there is one judge in the place of Christ
in this world. " ^ No one, therefore, unless in communion
with Peter can share in his authority, since it is absurd
to imagine that he who is outside can command in the
Church. Wherefore Optatus of Milevis blamed the Dona-
tists for this reason: "Against which gates (of hell) we
read that Peter received the saving keys, that is to say,
our prince, to whom it was said by Christ: 'To thee will
I give the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and the gates of
hell shall not conquer them.' Whence is it therefore that
you strive to obtain for yourselves the keys of the kingdom
of heaven — ^you who fight against the chair of Peter?'"

But the Episcopal order is rightly judged to be in com-
munion with Peter, as Christ commanded, if it be subject
to and obeys Peter; otherwise it necessarily becomes a
lawless and disorderly crowd. It is not sufficient for the
due preservation of the unity of the faith that the head
should merely have been charged with the office of super-
intendent, or should have been invested solely with a
power of direction. But it is absolutely necessary that he
should have received real and sovereign authority which the
whole conmiunity is bound to obey. What had the Son of
God in view when He promised the keys of the kingdom
of heaven to Peter alone ? Biblical usage and the unan-
imous teaching of the Fathers clearly show that supreme
authority is designated in the passage by the word keys.
Nor is it lawful to interpret in a different sense what was
given to Peter alone, and what was given to the other
apostles conjointly with him. If the power of binding,

• De Schism. Donat.. lib. ii. ' Epist. xii. ad Corneliiim, n. 5.
* Lib. ii., n. 4, 5.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 385

loosening, and feeding confers upon each and every one of
the bishops, the successors of the apostles, a real authority
to rule the people committed to him, certainly the same
power must have the same effect in his case to whom the
duty of feeding the lambs and sheep has been assigned by
God. "Christ constituted [Peter] not only pastor, but
pastor of pastors; Peter therefore feeds the lambs and
feeds the sheep, feeds the children and feeds the mothers,
governs the subjects and rules the prelates, because the
lambs and the sheep form the whole of the Church." *
Hence those remarkable expressions of the ancients con-
cerning St. Peter, which most clearly set forth the fact
that he was placed in the highest degree of dignity and
authority. They frequently call him "the prince of the
college of the disciples; the prince of the holy apostles;
the leader of that choir; the mouthpiece of all the apostles;
the head of that family; the ruler of the whole world;
the first of the apostles; the safeguard of the Church."
In this sense St. Bernard writes as follows to Pope Eu-
genius: "Who art thou? The great priest — ^the high
priest. Thou art the Prince of Bishops and the heir of
the apostles. . . . Thou art he to whom the keys were
given. There are, it is true, other gatekeepers of heaven
and other pastors of flocks, but thou art so much the
more glorious as thou hast inherited a different and more
glorious name than all the rest. They have flocks con-
signed to them, one to each; to thee all the flocks are
confided as one flock to one shepherd, and not alone the
sheep, but the shepherds. You ask how I prove this?
From the words of the Lord. To wliich — I do not say —
of the bishops, but even of the apostles have all the sheep
been so absolutely and unreservedly committed? If
thou lovest Me, Peter, feed My sheep. Which sheep?
Of this or that people, of this city, or country, or kingdom?
My sheep, He says: to whom therefore is it not evident

' S. Brunonis Episcopi Signiensia comment, in Joan., part iS.,
«ap. 21, n. 55.

386 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

that He does not designate some, but all? We can make
no exception where no distinction is made." *

But it is opposed to the truth, and in evident contradic-
tion with the divine constitution of the Church, to hold
that while each bishop is individually bound to obey the
authority of the Roman Pontiffs, taken collectively the
bishops are not so bound. For it is the nature and object
of a foundation to support the unity of the whole edifice
and to give stability to it, rather than to each component
part; and in the present case this is much more applicable,
since Christ the Lord wished that by the strength and
solidity of the foundation the gates of hell should be pre-
vented from prevailing against the Church. All are agreed
that the divine promise must be understood of the Church
as a whole, and not of any certain portions of it. These
can indeed be overcome by the assaults of the powers of
hell, as in point of fact has befallen some of them. More-
over, he who is set over the whole flock must have au-
thority not only over the sheep dispersed throughout the
Church, but also when they are assembled together. Do
the sheep when they are all assembled together rule and
guide the shepherd? Do the successors of the apostles
assembled together constitute the foundation on which
the successor of St. Peter rests in order to derive therefrom
strength and stability? Surely jurisdiction and authority
belong to him in whose power have been placed the keys
of the kingdom of heaven, not alone in all provinces
taken singly, but in all taken collectively. And as the
bishops, each in his own district, command with real
power not only individuals but the whole community,
so the Roman Pontiffs, whose jurisdiction extends to
the whole Christian commonwealth, must have all its
parts even taken collectively, subject and obedient to
their authority. Christ the Lord, as we have quite suf-
ficiently shown, made Peter and his successors His vicars,
to exercise forever in the Church the power which He

' De Consideratioue, lib. ii.. cap. F

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 387

exercised during His mortal life. Can the Apostolic Col-
lege be said to have been above its master in authority?
This power over the Episcopal College to which we re-
fer, and which is clearly set forth in holy writ, has ever
been acknowledged and attested by the Church, as is
clear from the teaching of General Councils. "We read
that the Roman Pontiff has pronounced judgments on the
prelates of all the churches ; we do not read that anybody
has pronounced sentence on him." '■ The reason for which
is stated thus: "there is no authority greater than that
of the Apostolic See." ^ Wherefore Gelasius on the decrees
of Councils says: "That which the First See has not ap-
proved of cannot stand; but what it has thought well to
decree has been received by the whole Church." ' It has
ever been unquestionably the office of the Roman Pontiffs
to ratify or to reject the decrees of Councils. Leo the
Great rescinded the acts of the Conciliabulum of Ephesus.
Damasus rejected those of Rimini, and Hadrian I. those
of Constantinople. The twenty-eighth canon of the
Council of Chalcedon, by the very fact that it lacks the
assent and approval of the Apostolic See, is admitted by
all to be worthless. Rightly, therefore, has Leo X. laid
down in the fifth Council of Lateran "that the Roman
Pontiff alone, as having authority over all Councils, has
full jurisdiction and power to summon, to transfer, to
dissolve Councils, as is clear, not only from the testimony
of holy writ, from the teaching of the Fathers and of
the Roman Pontiffs, and from the decrees of the sacred
canons, but from the teaching of the very Councils them-
selves." Indeed, holy writ attests that the keys of the
kingdom of heaven were given to Peter alone, and that

' Hadrianus ii., in Allocutione iii., ad Synodum Romanum an. 869.
Cf. Actionem vii., Cone. Constantinopolitani iv.

' Nicolaus in Epist. Ixxxvi. ad Michael. Imperat. " It is evident
that the judgment of the Apostolic See, than which there is no
authority greater, may be rejected by no one, nor is it lawful for
any one to pass judgment on its judgment."

' Epist. xxAd., ad Episcopos Dardanise, n. 5k

388 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH

the power of binding and loosening was granted to the
apostles and to Peter; but there is nothing to show that
the apostles received supreme power without Peter, and
against Peter. Such power they certainly did not receive
from Jesus Christ. Wherefore, in the decree of the Vati-
can Council as to the nature and authority of the primacy
of the Roman Pontiff, no newly conceived opinion is
set forth, but the venerable and constant belief of every
age.*

Nor does it beget any confusion in the administration
that Christians are bound to obey a twofold authority.
We are prohibited in the first place by divine wisdom
from entertaining any such thought, since this form of
government was constituted by the counsel of God Him-
self. In the second place we must note that the due order
of things and their mutual relations are disturbed if there
be a twofold magistracy of the same rank set over a
people, neither of which is amenable to the other. But
the authority of the Roman Pontiff is supreme, universal,
independent; that of the bishops limited, and dependent.
"It is not congruous that two superiors with equal au-
thority should be placed over the same flock; but that
two one of whom is higher than the other, should be
placed over the same people is not incongruous. Thus
the parish priest, the bishop, and the Pope, are placed
immediately over the same people."^ So the Roman
Pontiffs, mindful of their duty, wish above all things,
that the divine constitution of the Church should be
preserved. Therefore, as they defend with all necessary
care and vigilance their own authority, so they have
always labored, and will continue to labor, that the au-
thority of the bishops may be upheld. Yea, they look
upon whatever honor or obedience is given to the bishops
as paid to themselves. "My honor is the honor of the
imiversal Church. My honor is the strength and stabihty

^ Sess. iv., cap. 3.

' St. Thomas in iv. Seut. dist. xvii. a. 4, ad q. 4, ad 3.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 389

of my brethren. Then am I honored when due honor is
given to every one." ^

In what has been said We have faithfully described
the exemplar and form of the Church as divinely consti-
tuted. We have treated at length of its unity: We have
explained sufficiently its nature, and pointed out the way
in which the divine Founder of the Church willed that it
should be preserved. There is no reason to doubt that all
those, who by divine grace and mercy have had the happi-
ness to have been bom, as it were, in the bosom of the
Catholic Church, and to have lived in it, will listen to Our
apostolic voice: My sheep hear My voice,^ and that they
will derive from Our words fuller instruction and a more
perfect disposition to keep imited with their respective
] astors, and through them with the Supreme Pastor,
so that they may remain more securely within the one
fold, and may derive therefrom a greater abundance of
salutary fruit. But We, who, notwithstanding Our un-
fitness for this great dignity and office, govern by virtue
of the authority conferred on Us by Jesus Christ, as We
look on Jesus, the author and finisher of our faith,' feel
Our heart fired by His charity. What Christ has said
of Himself We may truly repeat of Ourselves: Other
sheep I have that are not of this fold: them also I irmst bring
and they shall hear My voice* Let all those, therefore,
who detest the widespread irreligion of our times, and
acknowledge and confess Jesus Christ to be the Son of
God and the Saviour of the human race, but who have
wandered away from the Spouse, listen to Our voice.
Let them not refuse to obey Our paternal charity. Those
who acknowledge Christ must acknowledge Him wholly
and entirely. "The Head and the body are Christ wholly
and entirely. The Head is the only-begotten Son of
God, the body is His Church; the bridegroom and the

* S. Gregorius M. Epistolanim, lib viii., ep. xxx., ad Eulogium.

* John X. 27.
» Heb. xii. 2.

* John X. 16.

390 THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH.

bride, two in one flesh. All who dissent from the Scrip-
tures concerning Christ, although they may be found in all
places in which the Church is found, are not in the Church;
and again all those who agree with the Scriptures con-
cerning the Head, and do not communicate in the unity
of the Church, are not in the Church." *

And with the same yearning Our soul goes out to those
whom the foul breath of irrehgion has not entirely cor-
rupted, and who at least seek to have the true God, the
Creator of heaven and earth, as their Father. Let such as
these take counsel with themselves, and realize that they
can in no wise be counted among the children of God,
unless they take Christ Jesus as their Brother, and at the
same time the Church as their Mother. We lovingly ad-
dress to all the words of St. Augustine: "Let us love the
Lord our God: let us love His Church; the Lord as our
Father, the Church as our Mother. Let no one say, I go
indeed to idols, I consult fortune-tellers and soothsayers;
but I leave not the Church of God: I am a Catholic.
Clinging to thy Mother, thou offendest thy Father. An-
other, too, says: 'Far be it from me; I do not consult
fortune-telling, I seek not soothsaj^ng, I seek not pro-
fane divinations, I go not to the worship of devils, I serve
not stones: but I am on the side of Donatus.' What
doth it profit thee not to offend the Father, who avenges
an offence against the Mother? What doth it profit to
confess the Lord, to honor God, to preach Him, to ac-
knowledge His Son, and to confess that He sits on the
right hand of the Father, if you blaspheme His Church?
... If you had a beneficent friend, whom you honored
daily — and even once calumniated his spouse, would
you ever enter his house? Hold fast, therefore, O dearly
iaeloved, hold fast altogether God as your Father, and
the Church as your Mother." *

* S. Augustinus, Contra Donatistaa Epistola, sive De Unit
Eccl., cap. iv., n. 7.

' Enarratio in Psal. Ixxxviii., sermo ii., u. 14.

THE UNITY OF THE CHURCH. 391

Above all things, trusting in the mercy of God, who is
able to move the hearts of men and to incline them as
and when He pleases, We most earnestly commend to His
loving kindness all those ol whom We have spoken. As a
pledge of divine grace, and as a token of Our affection. We
lovingly impart to you, in the Lord, Venerable Brethren,
to your clergy and people, Our Apostolic Blessing.

ANGLICAN ORDERS.
Apostolic Letter Apostolicce Curce, September 13, 1896.

We have dedicated to the welfare of the noble English
nation no small portion of the apostolic care and charity
by which, helped by His grace, We endeavor to fulfil the
office and follow in the footsteps of "the Great Shepherd
of the sheep," ^ Our Lord Jesus Christ. The Letter which
last year We sent to "the English seeking the kingdom
of Christ in the unity of the faith" is a special witness of
Our good-will towards England. In it We recalled the
memory of the ancient imion of her people with Mother
Church, and We strove to hasten the day of a happy
reconciliation by stirring up men's hearts to offer diUgent
prayer to God. And, again, more recently, when it
seemed good to Us to treat more fully the unity of
the Church in a general Letter, England had not the last
place in Our mind, in the hope that Our teaching might
both strengthen Catholics and bring the saving light to
those divided from Us.

It is pleasing to acknowledge the generous way in
which Our zeal and plainness of speech, inspired by no
mere human motives, have met the approval of the Eng-
lish people; and this testifies not less to their courtesy
than to tlie solicitude of many for their eternal salvation.

With the same mind and intention We have now deter-
mined to turn Our consideration to a matter of no less
importance, which is closely connected with the same
subject and with Our desires. For an opinion already

» Heb. xiii. 20.
392

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 393

prevalent, confirmed more than once by the action and
constant practice of the Church, maintained that when
in England, shortly after it was rent from the centre of
Christian unity, a new rite for conferring Holy Orders was
publicly introduced under Edward VI., the true Sacra-
ment of Orders, as instituted by Christ, lapsed, and with
it the hierarchical succession. For some time, however,
and in these last years especially, a controversy has sprung
up as to whether the Sacred Orders conferred according
to the Edwardine Ordinal possessed the nature and effect
of a sacrament: those in favor of the absolute validity, or
of a doubtful validity, being not only certain Anglican
writers, but some few CathoUcs, chiefly non-English.
The consideration of the excellency of the Christian
priesthood moved Anglican writers in this matter, de-
sirous as they were that their own people should not lack
the twofold power over the body of Christ. Catholic
writers were impelled by a wish to smooth the way for the
return of Anglicans to holy unity. Both, indeed, thought
that in view of studies brought up to the level of recent
research, and of new documents rescued from oblivion,
it was not inopportune to re-examine the question by
Our authority. And We, not disregarding such desires
and opinions, and, above all, obeying the dictates of
apostolic charity, have considered that nothing should
be left untried that might in any way tend to preserve
souls from injury or procure their advantage.

It has, therefore, pleased Us to graciously permit the
cause to be re-examined so that through the extreme care
taken in the new examination all doubt, or even shadow
of doubt, should be removed for the future. To this end
We commissioned a certain number of men noted for their
learning and ability, whose opinions in this matter were
known to be divergent, to state the grounds of their judg-
ments in writing. We then, having summoned them to
Our person, directed them to interchange writings and
further to investigate and discuss all that was necessary

394 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

for a full knowledge of the matter. We were careful also
that they should be able to re-examine all document*
bearing on this question which were known to exist in
the Vatican archives, to search for new ones, and even
to have at their disposal all acts relating to this subject
which are preserved by the Holy Office — or as it is called
the Supreme Council — and to consider whatever had up
to this time been adduced by learned men on both sides.
We ordered them, when prepared in this way, to meet
together in special sessions. These to the number of
twelve were held under the presidency of one of the Car-
dinals of the Holy Roman Chiu-ch, appointed by Our-
selves, and all were invited to free discussion. Finally
We directed that the acts of these meetings, together with
all other documents, should be submitted to Our vener-
able brethren, the Cardinals of the same Council, so that
when all had studied the whole subject, and discussed
it in Our presence, each might give his opinion.

This order for discussing the matter having been de-
termined upon, it was necessary, with a view to forming
a true estimate of the real state of the question, to enter
upon it, after careful inquiry as to how the matter stood
in relation to the prescription and settled custom of the
Apostolic See, the origin and force of which custom it
was undoubtedly of great importance to determine. For
this reason, in the first place, the principal documents in
which Our predecessors, at the request of Queen Mary,
exercised their special care for the reconciliation of the
Enghsh Church, were considered. Thus Juhus III. sent
Cardinal Reginald Pole, an Englishman, and illustrious
in many ways, to be his Legate a latere for the purpose,
** as hit angel of peace and love," and gave him extraordinary
and unusual mandates or faculties and direction for his
guidance. These Paul IV. confirmed and explained.
And here, to intei-prete rightly the force of these docu-
ments, it is necessary to lay it down as a fundamental
principle that they were certainly not intended to deal

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 395

with an abstract state of things, but with a specific and
concrete issue. For since the faculties given by these
Pontiffs to the ApostoUc Legate had reference to England
onh^ and to the state of reUgion therein, and since the
rules of action were laid down by them at the request
of the said Legate, they could not have been mere directions
for determining the necessary conditions for the validity
of ordinations in general. They must pertain directly
to providing for Holy Orders in the said kingdom, as
the recognized condition of the circumstances and times
demanded. This, besides being clear from the nature
and form of the said documents, is also obvious from the
fact that it would have been altogether irrelevant to
thus instruct the Legate — one whose learning had been
conspicuous in the Council of Trent — as to the conditions
necessary for the bestowal of the Sacrament of Orders.
To all rightly estimating these matters it will not be
difficult to understand why, in the Letters of Julius III.,
issued to the Apostolic Legate on March 8, 1554, there is
a distinct mention, first, of those who, "rightly and law-
fully promoted," might be maintained in their Orders;
and then of others who, "not promoted to Sacred Orders,"
might "he promoted if they were found to he worthy and
fitting subjects." For it is clearly and definitely noted,
as indeed was the case, that there were two classes of men:
the first those who had really received Sacred Orders,
either before the secession of Henry VIIL, or, if after
it and by ministers infected by error and schism, still
according to the accustomed Catholic rite; the second,
those who were initiated according to the Edwardine
Ordinal, who on that account could be "promoted" since
they had received an ordination which was null. And
that the mind of the Pope was this and nothing else is
clearly confirmed by the Letter of the said Legate (Janu-
ary 29, 1555) subdelegating his faculties to the Bishop
of Norwich. Moreover, what the Letters of Julius IH.
themselves say about freely using the Pontifical faculties,

396 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

even in behalf of those who had received their consecra-
tion "minus rite and not according to the accustomed form
of the Church," is to be especially noted. By this ex-
pression those only could be meant who had been con-
secrated according to the Edwardine rite, since besides it
and the Cathohc form there was then no other in England.
This becomes even still clearer when we consider the
legation which, on the advice of Cardinal Pole, the Sov-
ereign Princes, Philip and Mary, sent to the Pope in Rome
in the month of February, 1555. The royal ambassadors
— three men, "most illustrious and endowed with every
virtue" of whom one was Thomas Thirlby, Bishop of
Ely — were charged to inform the Pope more fully as to
the religious condition of the country, and especially
to beg that he would ratify and confirm what the Legate
had been at pains to effect, and had succeeded in effecting,
towards the reconcihation of the kingdom with the Church.
For this purpose all the necessary written evidence and
the pertinent parts of the new Ordinal were submitted
to the Pope. The Legation having been splendidly re-
ceived, and their evidence having been "diligently dis-
cussed" by several of the Cardinals, "after mature deliher-
ation," Paul IV. issued his Bull Proeclara carissimi on June
20 of the same year. In this, whilst giving full force
and approbation to what Pole had done, it is ordered in
the matter of the Ordinations as follows: "Those who
have been promoted to Ecclesiastical Orders . . . by any one
but by a bishop validly and lawfully ordained are bound
to receive those Orders again." But who those bishops not
"validly and lawfully ordained" were had been made
sufficiently clear by the foregoing documents and the
faculties used in the said matter by the Legate: those,
namely, who have been promoted to the Episcopate, as
others to other Orders "not according to the accustomed form
of the Church," or, as the Legate himself wrote to the
Bishop of Norwich, " the form and intention of the Church "
not having been observed. These were certainly those

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 397

promoted according to the new form of rite, to the ex-
amination of which the Cardinals specially deputed had
given their careful attention. Neither should the passage
much to the point in the same Pontifical Letter be over-
looked, where, together with others needing dispensation,
are enumerated those "who had obtained as well orders as
benefices nulliter et de facto." For to obtain orders nulliter
means the same as by an act null and void, that is in-
valid., as the very meaning of the word and as common
parlance require. This is especially clear when the word
is used in the same way about orders as about "ecclesias-
tical benefices." These, by the imdoubted teaching of
the sacred canons, were clearly null if given with any
vitiating defect. Moreover, when some doubted as to
who, according to the mind of the Pontiff, could be called
and considered bishops "validly and lawfully ordained,"
the said Pope shortly after, on October 30, issued further
letters in the form of a brief, and said: "We, wishing to
remove the doubt, and to opportunely provide for the peace
of conscience of those who during the schism were promoted
to Orders, by expressing more clearly the mind and intention
which We had in the aforesaid Letters, declare that only
those bishops and archbishops who were not ordained and
consecrated in the form of the Church cannot be said to have
been validly and lawfully ordained." Unless this declara-
tion had appUed to the actual case in England, that is to
say to the Edwardine Ordinal, the Pope would certainly
have done nothing by these last Letters for the removal
of doubt and the restoration of peace of conscience. Fur-
ther, it was in this sense that the Legate understood the
documents and commands of the Apostolic See, and duly
and conscientiously obeyed them; and the same was
done by Queen Mary and the rest who helped to restore
Catholicism to its former state.

The authority of Julius III. and of Paul IV., which we
have quoted, clearly shows the origin of that practice
which has been observed without interruption for more

398 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

than three centuries, that Ordinations conferred according
to the Edwardine rite should be considered null and void.
This practice is fully proved by the numerous cases of
absolute reordination according to the Catholic rite
even in Rome. In the observance of this practice we
have a proof directly affecting the matter in hand. For
if by any chance doubt should remain as to the true sense
in which these Pontifical documents are to be under-
stood, the principle holds good that "Custom is the best
interpreter of law." Since in the Church it has ever been
a constant and established rule that it is sacrilegious to
repeat the Sacrament of Order, it never could have come
to pass that the ApostoUc See should have silently ac-
quiesced and tolerated such a custom. But not only did
the Apostolic See tolerate this practice, but approved and
sanctioned it as often as any particular case arose which
called for its judgm-ent in the matter. We adduce two
facts of this kind out of many which have from time to
time been submitted to the Supreme Council of the Holy
Office. The first was (in 1684) of a certain French Cal-
vinist, and the other (in 1704), of John Clement Gordon,
both of whom had received their Orders according to the
Edwardine ritual. In the first case, after a searching
investigation, the consultors, not a few in number, gave
in writing their answers — or, as they call it, their vota —
and the rest unanimously agreed with their conclusion,
for "the invalidity of the Ordination," and only on account
of reasons of opportuneness did the Cardinals deem it
well to answer by a "dilata" [viz., not to formulate the
conclusion at the moment]. The same documents were
called into use and considered again in the examination of
the second case, and additional wTitten statements of
opinion were also obtained from consultors, and the
most eminent doctors of the Sorbonne and of Douai were
likewise asked for their opinion. No safeguard which
wisdom and prudence could suggest to insure the thorough
sifting of the question was neglected.

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 399

And here it is important to observe that although
Gordon himself, whose case it was, and some of the con-
suitors had adduced, amongst the reasons which went to
prove the invalidity, the Ordination of Parker, accord-
ing to their own ideas about it, in the delivery of the
decision this reason was altogether set aside, as docu-
ments of incontestable authenticity prove. Nor, in
pronouncing the decision, was weight given to any other
reason than the "defect of form and intention"; and in
order that the judgment concerning this form might be
more certain and complete, precaution was taken that a
copy of the Anglican Ordinal should be submitted to
examination, and that with it should be collated the
Ordination forms gathered together from the various
Eastern and Western rites. Then Clement XI. himself,
with the unanimous vote of the Cardinals concerned
on the "Feria V.," ^ April 17, 1704:, decreed: "John Clement
Gordon shall be ordained from the beginning and uncon-
ditionally to all the Orders, even Sacred Orders, and
chiefly of priesthood, and in case he has not been con-
firmed he shall first receive the Sacrament of Confirma-
tion." It is important to bear in mind that this judg-
ment was in no wise determined by the omission of the
tradition of instruments, or in such a case, according to
the established custom, the direction would have been
to repeat the ordination conditionally ; and still more
important it is to note that the judgment of the Pontiff
applies universally to all Anglican Ordinations, because,
although it refers to a particular case, it is not based upon
any reason special to that case, but upon the defect of

* [The term "Feria V." here used has a technical value. Ordi-
nary meetings of the Supreme Council for tiie ratification of de-
crees usually take place on the Wednesdays, and are marked
"Feria IV." But the special and solemn sessions which, in matters
of graver import, are held in the presence and under the presidency
of the Pope himself, who thus in a special way makes the decisions
his own, take place on Thursdays, and are marked ''Feria V." —
Translators' Note.]

400 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

form, which defect equally affects all these Ordinations;
so much so, that when similar cases subsequently came up
for decision the same decree of Clement XI. was quoted
as the norma.

Hence it must be clear to every one that the contro-
versy lately revived had been already definitely settled by
the Apostohc See, and that it is to the insufficient knowl-
edge of these documents that we must, perhaps, at-
tribute the fact that any CathoUc writer should have
considered it still an open question. But, as We stated
at the beginning, there is nothing We so deeply and
ardently desire as to be of help to men of good-will by
showing them the greatest consideration and charity.
Wherefore We ordered that the AngUcan Ordinal, which
is the essential point of the whole matter, should be once
more most carefully examined.

In the examination of any rite for the effecting and
administering of a sacrament, distinction is rightly made
between the part which is ceremonial and that which is
essential, usually called the matter and form. All know
that the sacraments of the New Law, as sensible and
efficient signs of invisible grace, ought both to signify the
grace which they effect, and effect the grace which they
signify. Although the signification ought to be found in
the whole essential rite — that is to say, in the matter and
form — ^it still pertains chiefly to the form ; since the mat-
ter is the part which is not determined by itself, but which
is determined by the form. And this appears still more
clearly in the Sacrament of Orders, the matter of which,
in so far as We have to consider it in this case, is the im-
position of hands, which indeed by itself signifies nothing
definite, and is equally used for several Orders and for
Confirmation. But the words which until recently were
commonly held by Anglicans to constitute the proper form
of priestly Ordination — namely, "Receive the Holy Ghost,"
certainly do not in the least definitely express the Sacred
Order of Priesthood, or its grace and power, which is chiefly

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 401

the power " of consecrating and of offering the true body and
blood of the Lord*' ^ in that sacrifice which is no "nude com-
memoration of the sacrifice offered on the Cross. " ^ This form
had indeed afterwards added to it the words "for the
office and work of a priest" etc. ; — but this rather shows that
the AngMcans themselves perceived that the first form was
defective and inadequate. But even if this addition
could give to the form its due signification, it was intro-
duced too late, as a century had already elapsed since the
adoption of the Edwardine Ordinal, for, as the hierarchy
had become extinct, there remained no power of ordain-
ing. In vain has help been recently sought for the plea
of the vahdity of Orders from the other prayers of the
same Ordinal. For, to put aside other reasons which
show this to be insufficient for the purpose in the Anglican
rite, let this argument suffice for all : from them has been
deliberately removed whatever sets forth the dignity
and office of the priesthood in the Cathohc rite. That
fonn consequently cannot be considered apt or sufficient
for the sacrament which omits what it ought essentially
to signify.

The same holds good of Episcopal consecration. For
to the formula "Receive the Holy Ghost" not only were
the words "for the office and work of a bishop," etc., added
at a later period, but even these, as we shall presently
state, must be understood in a sense different to that
which they bear in the Catholic rite. Nor is anything
gained by quoting the prayer of the preface "Almighty
God" since it in hke manner has been stripped of the
words which denote the summum sacerdotium. It is not
here relevant to examine whether the Episcopate be a
completion of the priesthood or an Order distinct from
it, or whether when bestowed, as they say per saltum,
on one who is not a priest, it has or has not its effect.
But the Episcopate undoubtedly by the institution of

» Council of Trent, Sess. XXIII., de Sacr. Ord., Can. 1.
' Ibid., Sess. XXII., de sacrif. Missae, Can. 3.

402 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

Christ most truly belongs to the Sacrament of Ordera
and constitutes the sacerdotium in the highest degree,
namely, that which by the teaching of the holy Fathers
and our liturgical customs is called the "summum sacer-
dotium, sacri ministerii summa." So it comes to pass
that, as the Sacrament of Orders and the true sacerdotium
of Christ were utterly eliminated from the Anglican rite,
and hence the sacerdotium is in no wise conferred truly
and vaUdly in the Episcopal consecration of the same
rite, for the hke reason, therefore, the Episcopate can
in no wise be truly and validly conferred by it; and this
the more so because among the first duties of the Episco-
pate is that of ordaining ministers for the Holy Eucharist
and sacrifice.

For the full and accurate understanding of the Anglican
Ordinal, besides what we have noted as to some of its
parts, there is nothing more pertinent than to consider
carefully the circumstances under which it was com-
posed and publicly authorized. It would be tedious to
enter into details, nor is it necessary to do so, as the
history of that time is sufficiently eloquent as to the
animus of the authors of the Ordinal against the Catholic
Church, as to the abettors whom they associated with
themselves from the heterodox sects, and as to the end
they had in view. Being fully cognizant of the necessary
connection between faith and worship, between "the law
of believing and the law of praying," under a pretext of
returning to the primitive form, they corrupted the Htur-
gical order in many ways to suit the errors of the re-
formers. For this reason in the whole Ordinal not only
is there no clear mention of the sacrifice, of consecration,
of the sacerdotium, and of the power of consecrating
and offering sacrifice, but, as we have just stated, every
trace of these things, which had been in such prayers of
the Catholic rite as they had not entirely rejected, was
deliberately removed and struck out. In this way the
native character — or spirit as it is called — of the Ordinal

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 403

clearly manifests itself. Hence, if vitiated in its origin
it was wholly insufficient to confer Orders, it was im-
possible that in the course of time it could become suf-
ficient since no change had taken place. In vain those
who, from theiiime of Charles I., have attempted to hold
some kind of sacrifice or of priesthood, have made some
additions to the Ordinal. In vain also has been the con-
tention of that small section of the Anghcan body formed
in recent times that the said Ordinal can be understood
and interpreted in a sound and orthodox sense. Such
efforts. We affirm, have been and are made in vain, and
for this reason, that any words in the Anglican Ordinal,
as it now is, which lend themselves to ambiguity, cannot
be taken in the same sense as they possess in the CathoHc
rite. For once a new rite has been initiated in which,
as we have seen, the Sacrament of Orders is adulterated
or denied, and from which all idea of consecration and
sacrifice has been rejected, the formula ^^ Receive the
Holy Ghost" no longer holds good; because the Spirit
is infused into the soul with the grace of the sacrament,
and the words "for the office and work of a priest or bishop"
and the Uke no longer hold good, but remain as words
without the reality which Christ instituted.

Several of the more shrewd Anglican interpreters of the
Ordinal have perceived the force of this argument, and
they openly urge it against those who take the Ordinal in
a new sense and vainly attach to the Orders conferred
thereby a value and efficacy which they do not possess.
By this same argument is refuted the contention of those
who think that the prayer "Almighty God, giver of all
good things" which is found at the beginning of the ritual
action, might suffice as a legitimate form of Orders, even
in the hypothesis that it might be held to be sufficient
in a CathoUc rite approved by the Church.

With this inherent defect of form is joined the defect of
intention, which is equally essential to the sacrament.
The Church does not judge about the mind and intention

404 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

in so far as it is something by its nature internal; but in
so far as it is manifested externally she is bound to judge
concerning it. When any one has rightly and seriously
made use of the due form and the matter requisite for
effecting or conferring the sacrament he is considered by
the very fact to do what the Church does. On this prin-
ciple rests the doctrine that a sacrament is truly conferred
by the ministry of one who is a heretic or unbaptized,
provided the Catholic rite be employed. On the other
hand, if the rite be changed, with the manifest intention
of introducing another rite not approved by the Church
and of rejecting what the Church does, and what by the
institution of Christ belongs to the nature of the sacra-
ment, then it is clear that not only is the necessary in-
tention wanting to the sacrament, but that the intention
is adverse to and destructive of the sacrament.

All these matters have been long and carefully con-
sidered by Ourselves and by Our Venerable Brethren,
the Judges of the Supreme Council, of whom it has pleased
Us to call a special meeting on the ''Feria V." the 16th
day of July last, upon the solemnity of Our Lady of Mount
Carmel. They with one accord agreed that the question
laid before them had been already adjudicated upon with
full knowledge of the Apostolic See, and that this re-
newed discussion and examination of the issues had
only served to bring out more clearly the wisdom and
accuracy with which that decision had been made. Never-
theless We deemed it well to postpone a decision in order
to afford time, both to consider whether it would be fitting
or expedient that We should make a fresh authoritative
declaration upon the matter, and to himibly pray for a
fuller measure of divine guidance. Then, considering
that this matter of practice, although already decided,
had been by certain persons, for whatever reason, re-
called into discussion, and that thence it might follow that
a pernicious error would be fostered in the minds of many
who might suppose that they possessed the Sacrament and

ANGLICAN ORDERS. 405

effects of Orders, where these are nowise to be found, it has
seemed good to Us in the Lord to pronounce Our judgment.

Wherefore, strictly adhering in this matter to the de-
crees of the Pontiffs Our predecessors, and confinning
them most fully, and, as it were, renewing them by Our
authority, of Our own motion and certain knowledge
We pronounce and declare that Ordinations carried out
according to the Anglican rite have been and are abso-
lutely null and utterly void.

It remains for Us to say that even as We have entered
upon the elucidation of this grave question in the name
and in the love of the Great Shepherd, in the same We
appeal to those who desire and seek with a sincere heart
the possession of a hierarchy and of Orders. Perhaps
until now aiming at the greater perfection of Christian
virtue, and searching more devoutly the divine Scriptures,
and redoubling the fevor of their prayers, they have,
nevertheless, hesitated in doubt and anxiety to follow the
voice of Christ, which so long has interiorly admonished
them. Now they see clearly whither He in His goodness
invites them and wills them to come. In returning to His
one only fold, they will obtain the blessings which they
seek, and the consequent helps to salvation of which He
has made the Church the dispenser, and, as it were, the
constant guardian and promoter of His Redemption
amongst the nations. Then indeed "they shall draw
waters in joy from the fountains of the Saviour, ^^ His won-
drous sacraments, whereby His faithful souls have their
sins truly remitted, and are restored to the friendship of
God, are nourished and strengthened by the heavenly
Bread, and abound with the most powerful aids for their
eternal salvation. May the God of Peace, the God of all
consolation, in His infinite tenderness enrich and fill with
all these blessings those who truly yearn for them. We
wish to direct Our exhortation and Our desires in a special
way to those who are ministers of religion in their respec-
tive communities. They are men who from their very

406 ANGLICAN ORDERS.

office take precedence in learning and authority, and who
have at heart the glory of God and the salvation of souls.
Let them be the first in jo3''fully submitting to the divine
call, and obey it, and furnish a glorious example to others.
Assuredly with an exceeding great joy their Mother, the
Church, will welcome them and will cherish with all her
love and care those whom the strength of their generous
gouls has amidst many trials and difficulties led back to
her bosom. Nor could words express the recognition
which this devoted courage will win for them from the
assembUes of the brethren throughout the CathoUc world,
or what hope or confidence it will merit for them before
Christ as their Judge, or what reward it will obtain from
Him in the heavenly kingdom! And We Ourselves in
every lawful way shall continue to promote their recon-
cihation with the Church in which individuals and masses,
as We ardently desire, may find so much for their imi-
tation. In the meantime, by the tender mercy of the
Lord our God, We ask and beseech all to strive faith-
fully to follow in the open path of di\dne grace and
truth.

We decree that these Letters and all things contained
therein shall not be liable at any time to be impugned or
objected to by reason of fault or any other defect whatso-
ever of subreption or obreption or of Our intention, but
are and shall be always valid and in force, and shall be
inviolably observed both juridically and otherwise, by all
of whatsoever degree and pre-eminence; declaring null
and void anything which in these matters may happen to
be contrariwise attempted, whether wittingly or unwit-
tingly, by any person whatsoever by whatsoever authority
or pretext, all things to the contrary notwithstanding.

We will that there shall be given to copies of these
Lettera, even printed, provided that they be signed by a
notary and sealed by a person constituted in ecclesiastical
dignity, the same credence that would be given to the
expression of Our will by the showing of these present*.

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF
BOOKS.

Apostolic Constitviion Offldorum ac ilf wncrutn,
January 25, 1897.

Of all the official duties which We are bound most care-
fully and most diligently to fulfil in this supreme position of
the apostolate, the chief and principal duty is to watch
assiduously and earnestly to strive that the integrity of
Christian faith and morals may suffer no diminution. And
this, more than at any other time, is especially necessary
in these days, when men's minds and characters are so
unrestrained that almost every doctrine which Jesus
Christ, the Saviour of mankind, has committed to the
custody of His Church, for the welfare of the human race,
Is daily called into question and doubt. In this warfare,
many and varied are the stratagems and hurtful devices
of the enemy; but most perilous of all is the uncurbed
freedom of writing and publishing noxious literature.
Nothing can be conceived more pernicious, more apt to
defile souls, through its contempt of religion, and its
manifold allurements to sin. Wherefore the Church,
who is the custodian and vindicator of the integrity of
faith and morals, fearful of so great an evil, has from an
early date realized that remedies must be applied against
this plague; and for this reason she has ever striven, as
far as lay in her power, to restrain men from the reading
of bad books, as fram a deadly poison. The early days
of the Church were witnesses to the earnest zeal of St.
Paul in this respect; and every subsequent age has wit-
nessed the vigilance of the Fathers, the commands of

407

408 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

the bishops, and the decrees of Councils in a similar
direction.

Historical documents bear special witness to the care
and diligence with which the Roman Pontiffs have vig-
ilantly endeavored to prevent the unchecked spread of
heretical writings detrimental to the pubUc. History is
full of examples. Anastasius I. solemnly condemned the
more dangerous writings of Origen, Innocent I. those of
Pelagius, Leo the Great all the works of the Manicheans.
The decretal letters, opportunely issued by Gelasius, con-
cerning books to be received and rejected, are well known.
And so, in the course of centuries, the Holy See con-
demned the pestilent writings of the Mono thelites, of
Abelard, Marsilius Patavinus, Wycliff, and Huss.

In the fifteenth century, after the invention of the art of
printing, not only were bad publications which had al-
ready appeared condemned, but precautions began to be
taken against the pubhcation of similar works in the
future. These prudent measures were called for by no
slight cause, but rather by the need of protecting the
public morals and welfare at the time; for too many
had rapidly perverted into a mighty engine of destruction
an art excellent in itself, productive of immense advan-
tages, and naturally destined for the advancement of
Christian culture. Owing to the rapid process of publica-
tion, the great evil of bad books had been multiplied and
accelerated. Wherefore Our predecessors, Alexander VI.
and Leo X., most wisely promulgated certain definite
laws, well suited to the character of the times, in order to
restrain printers and pubUshers within the limits of their
duty.

The tempest soon became more violent, and it was
necessary to check the contagion of heresy with still more
vigilance and severity. Hence Leo X., and afterwards
Clement VII., severely prohibited the reading or retaining
of the books of Luther. But as, owing to the unhappy
circumstances of that epoch, the foul flood of pernicious

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 409

books had increased beyond measure and spread in all
directions, there appeared to be need of a more complete
and efficacious remedy. This remedy Our predecessor,
Paul IV., was the first to employ, by opportunely pub-
lishing a list of books and other writings against which
the faithful should be warned. A little later the Council
of Trent took steps to restrain the ever-growing license of
writing and reading by a new measure. At its command
and desire, certain chosen prelates and theologians not only
applied themselves to increasing and perfecting the Index
which Paul IV. had published, but also drew up certain
rules to be observed in the publishing, reading, and use
of books; to which rules Pius IV, added the sanction of
his apostolic authority.

The interests of the pubhc welfare, which had given rise
to the Tri den tine Rules, necessitated in the course of time
certain alterations. For which reason the Roman Pon-
tiffs, especially Clement VIII., Alexander VII., and Bene-
dict XIV., mindful of the circumstances of the period
and the dictates of prudence, issued several decrees cal-
culated to elucidate these rules and to accommodate them
to the times.

The above facts clearly prove that the chief care of the
Roman Pontiffs has always been to protect civil society
from erroneous behefs and corrupt morals, the twin causes
of the decline and ruin of States, which commonly owes its
origin and its progress to bad books. Their labors were
not unfruitful, so long as the divine law regulated the
commands and prohibitions of civil government, and the
rulers of States acted in unison -with, the ecclesiastical
authority.

Every one is aware of the subsequent course of events.
As circumstances and men's minds gradually altered, the
Church, with her wonted prudence, observing the char-
acter of the period, took those steps which appeared most
expedient and best calculated to promote the salvation of
men. Several prescriptions of the rules of the Index,

410 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

which appeared to have lost their original opportuneness,
she either abolished by decree, or, with equal gentleness
and wisdom, permitted them to grow obsolete. In recent
times, Pius IX., in a letter to the archbishops and bishops
of the States of the Church, considerably mitigated Rule
X. Moreover, on the eve of the Vatican Council, he
instructed the learned men of the preparatory commission
to examine and revise all the rules of the Index, and to
advise how they should be dealt with. They unanimously
decided that the rules required alteration; and several of
the Fathers of the Council openly professed their agree-
ment with this opinion and desire. A letter of the French
bishops exists urging the necessity of immediate action in
"repubhshing the rules and the whole scheme of the
Index in an entirely new form, better suited to our times
and easier to observe." A similar opinion was expressed at
the same time by the bishops of Germany, who definitely
petitioned that "the rules of the Index might be sub-
mitted to a fresh revision and a rearrangement." With
these bishops many bishops of Italy and other countries
have agreed.

Taking into account the circumstances of our times, the
conditions of society, and popular customs, all these re-
quests are certainly justified and in accordance with the
maternal affection of Holy Church. In the rapid race of
intellect, there is no field of knowledge in which literature
has not run riot, hence the daily inundation of most per-
nicious books. Worst of all, the civil laws not only con-
nive at this serious evil but allow it the widest license.
Thus, on the one hand, many minds are in a state of
anxiety; whilst, on the other, there is unlimited oppor-
tunity for every kind of reading.

Believing that some remedy ought to be applied to these
e^dls, We have thought well to take two steps which will
supply a certain and clear rule of action in this matter.
First, to diligently revise the Index of books forbidden to
be read; and We have ordered this revised edition to be

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 411

published when complete. Secondly, We have turned Our
attention to the rules themselves, and have determined,
■without altering their nature, to make them somewhat
milder, so that it cannot be difficult or irksome for any
person of good- will to obey them. In this we have not only
followed the example of Our predecessors, but imitated
the maternal affection of the Church, who desires nothing
more earnestly than to show herself indulgent, and, in the
present, as in the past, ever cares for her children in such a
manner as gently and lovingly to have regard to their
weakness.

Wherefore, after mature deliberation, and having con-
sulted the Cardinals of the Sacred Congregation of the
Index, We have decided to issue the following General
Decrees appended to this Constitution, and the aforesaid
Sacred Congregation shall, in the future, follow these
exclusively, and all Catholics throughout the world shall
strictly obey them. We will that they alone shall have
the force of law, abrogating the rules published by order
of the Sacred Council of Trent, and the Observations,
Instructions, Decrees, Monita, and all other statutes and
commands whatsoever of Our predecessors, with the
sole exception of the Constitution Sollicita ei provida of
Benedict XIV., which We will to retain in the future the
Cull force which it has hitherto had.

GENERAL DECREES CONCERNING THE PROHIBI-
TION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

ARTICLE I.
Or THB Prohibition of Books.

CHAPTER I.

Of the Prohibited Books of ApostoJes, Heretics, Schismatics, and

Other Writers.

1. AH books condemned before the j'-ear 1600 by the
Sovereign Pontiffs, or by (Ecumenical Councils, and wliich

412 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

are not recorded in the new Index, must be considered as
condemned in the same manner as formerly, with the
exception of such as are permitted by the present General
Decrees.

2. The books of apostates, heretics, schismatics, and all
writers whatsoever, defending heresy or schism, or in any
way attacking the foundations of religion, are altogether
prohibited.

3. Moreover, the books of non-Catholics, ex professo
treating of religion, are prohibited, unless they clearly con-
tain nothing contrary to Cathohc faith,

4. The books of the above-mentioned writers, not treat-
ing ex professo of reUgion, but only touching incidentally
upon the truths of faith, are not to be considered as pro-
hibited by ecclesiastical law, unless proscribed by special
decree.

CHAPTER II.

Of Editions of the Original Text of Holy Scripture and of Versions
not in the Vernacular.

5. Editions of the original text and of the ancient
Catholic versions of Holy Scripture, as well as those of
the Eastern Church, if published by non-CathoHcs, even
though apparently edited in a faithful and complete
manner, are allowed only to those engaged in theological
and biblical studies, provided also that the dogmas of
Catholic faith are not impugned in the prolegomena or
annotations.

6. In the same manner, and under the same conditions,
other versions of the Holy Bible, whether in Latin or in
any other dead language, published by non-Catholics, are
permitted.

CHAPTER III.

Of Vernacular Versions of Holy Scripture.

7. As it has been clearly shown by experience that, if
the Holy Bible in the vernacular is generally permitted
without any distinction, more harm than utility is thereby

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 413

caused, owing to human temerity: all versions in the
vernacular, even by Catholics, are altogether prohibited,
unless approved by the Holy See, or pubHshed, under
the vigilant care of the bishops, with annotations taken
from the Fathers of the Church and learned Catholic
writers.

8. All versions of the Holy Bible, in any vernacular
language, made by non-Cathohcs are prohibited; and
especially those pubUshed by the Bible societies, which
have been more than once condemned by the Roman
Pontiffs, because in them the wise laws of the Church
concerning the pubhcation of the sacred books are entirely
disregarded.

Nevertheless, these versions are permitted to students of
theological or biblical science, under the conditions laid
down above (No. 5).

CHAPTER IV.
Of Obscene Books.

9. Books which professedly treat of, narrate, or teach
lewd or obscene subjects are entirely prohibited, since
care must be taken not only of faith but also of morals,
which are easily corrupted by the reading of such books.

10. The books of classical authors, whether ancient or
modem, if disfigured with the same stain of indecency,
are, on account of the elegance and beauty of their dic-
tion, permitted only to those who are justified on account
of their duty or the function of teaching; but on no ac-
count may they be placed in the hands of, or taught to,
boys or youths, unless carefully expurgated.

CHAPTER V.

Of Certain Special Kinds of Books.

11. Those books are condemned which are derogatory
to Ahnighty God, or to the Blessed Virgin Mary, or the

414 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

Saints, or to the Catholic Church and her worship, or to
the sacraments, or to the Holy See. To the same con-
demnation are subject those works in which the idea of
the inspiration of Holy Scripture is perverted, or its ex-
tension too narrowly limited. Those books, moreover,
are prohibited which professedly revile the ecclesiastical
hierarchy, or the clerical or religious state.

12. It is forbidden to publish, read, or keep books ja
which sorcery, divination, magic, the evocation of spirits,
and other superstitions of this kind are taught or com-
mended.

13. Books or other writings which narrate new appari-
tions, revelations, visions, prophecies, miracles, or which
introduce new devotions, even under the pretext of being
private ones, if published \\dthout the legitimate per-
mission of ecclesiastica superiors, are prohibited.

14. Those books, moreover, are prohibited which defend
as lawful, duelling, suicide, or divorce; which treat of
Freemasonry, or other societies of the kind, teaching
them to be useful, and not injurious to the Church and to
Society; and those which defend errors proscribed by the
Apostolic See.

CHAPTER VI.
Of Sacred Pictures and Indulgences.

15. Pictures, in any style of printing, of Our Lord Jesus
Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary, the angels and saints, or
other servants of God, which are not conformable to the
sense and decrees of the Church, are entirely forbidden.
New pictures, whether produced with or without prayers
annexed, may not be pubhshed without permission of
ecclesiastical authority.

16. It is forbidden to all to give publicity in any way to
apocryphal indulgences, and such as have been proscribed
or revoked by the Apostolic See. Those which have
already been published must be withdrawn from the
hands of the faithful.

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 415

17. No books of indulgences, or compendiums, pam-
phlets, leaflets, etc., containing grants of indulgences, may-
be published without permission of competent authority.

CHAPTER VII.

Of Liturgical Books and Prayer Books.

18. In authentic editions of the Missal, Breviary, Ritual,
Ceremonial of Bishops, Roman Pontifical, and other
liturgical books approved by the holy Apostolic See, no
one shall presume to make any change whatsoever; other-
wise such new editions are prohibited.

19. No Htanies — except the ancient and common
litanies contained in the breviaries, missals, pontificals,
and rituals, as well as the Litany of Loretto, and the
Litany of the Most Holy Name of Jesus already approved
by the Holy See — may be published without the examina-
tion and approbation of the ordinary.

20. No one, without license of legitimate authority, may
publish books or pamphlets of prayers, devotions, or of
religious, moral, ascetic, or mystic doctrine and instruc-
tion, or others of like nature, even though apparently con-
ducive to the fostering of piety among Christian people;
otherwise they are to be considered as prohibited.

CHAPTER VIII.
Of Newspapers and Periodicals.

21. Newspapers and periodicals which designedly at-
tack religion or morality are to be held as prohibited not
only by the natural but also by the ecclesiastical law.

Ordinaries shall take care, whenever it be necessary,
that the faithful shall be warned against the danger and
injury of reading of this kind.

22. No Catholics, particularly ecclesiastics, shall pub-

416 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

lish anything in newspapers or periodicals of this character,
unless for some just and reasonable cause.

CHAPTER IX.
Of Permission to Read and Keep Prohibited Books.

23. Those only shall be allowed to read and keep books
prohibited, either by special decrees or by these General
Decrees, who shall have obtained the necessary permission,
either from the Apostolic See or from its delegates.

24. The Roman Pontiffs have placed the power of
granting hcenses for the reading and keeping of prohibited
books in the hands of the Sacred Congregation of the
Index. Nevertheless the same power is enjoyed both by
the Supreme Congregation of the Holy Office, and by the
Sacred Congregation of Propaganda for the regions sub-
ject to its administration. For the city of Rome this
power belongs also to the Master of the Sacred Apostolic
Palace.

25. Bishops and other prelates with quasi-episcopal
jurisdiction may grant such license for individual books,
and in urgent cases only. But if they have obtained from
the Apostolic See a general faculty to grant permission to
the faithful to read and keep prohibited books, they must
grant this only with discretion and for a just and reasonable
cause.

26. Those who have obtained apostolic faculties to read
and keep prohibited books may not on this account read
and keep any books whatsoever or periodicals condemned
by the local ordinaries, unless in the apostolic indult
express permission be given to read and keep books by
whomsoever prohibited. And those who have obtained
permission to read prohibited books must remember that
they are bound by grave precept to keep books of this
kind in such a manner that they may not fall into the hands
of others.

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 417

CHAPTER X •
Of the Denunciation of Bad Books.

27. Although all Cathohcs, especially the more learned,
ought to denounce pernicious books either to the bishops
or to the Holy See, this duty belongs more especially to
apostolic nuncios and delegates, local ordinaries, and
rectors of imiversities.

28. It is expedient, in denouncing bad books, that not
only the title of the book be expressed, but also, as far as
possible, the reasons be explained why the book is con-
sidered worthy of censure. Those to whom the denun-
ciation is made will remember that it is their duty to keep
secret the names of the denouncers,

29. Ordinaries, even as delegates of the Apostolic See,
must be careful to prohibit evil books or other writings
published or circulated in their dioceses, and to with-
draw them from the hands of the faithful. Such works
and writings should be referred by them to the judgment
of the Apostolic See as appear to require a more careful
examination, or concerning which a decision of the su-
preme authority may seem desirable in order to procure
a more salutary effect.

ARTICLE 11.
Of the Censokship op Books.

CHAPTER I. •
Of the Prelates entrusted with the Censorship of Books.

30. From what has been laid down above (No. 7), it is
sufficiently clear what persons have authority to approve
or permit editions and translations of the Holy Bible.

31. No one shall venture to repubhsh books condemned
by the Apostolic See. If, for a grave and reasonable

418 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

cause, any particular exception appears desirable in thT^
respect, this can only be allowed on obtaining beforehand
a license from the Sacred Congregation of the Index and
observing the conditions prescribed by it.

32. Whatsoever pertains in any way to causes of
beatification and canonization of the servants of God
may not be pubUshed without the approval of the Con-
gregation of Sacred Rites.

33. The same must be said of collections of decrees of
the various Roman congregations: such collections maj
not be pubhshed without first obtaining the hcense of the
authorities of each congregation, and observing the con-
ditions by them prescribed.

34. Vicars apostoHc and missionaries apostohc shall
faithfully observe the decrees of the Sacred Congregation
of Propaganda concerning the pubUcation of books.

35. The approbation of books of which the censorship
is not reserved by the present decrees either to the Holy
See or to the Roman congregations belongs to the or-
dinary of the place where they are pubUshed.

36. Regulars must remember that, in addition to the
license of the bishop, they are bound by a decree of the
Sacred Council of Trent to obtain leave for pubhshing
any work from their own superior. Both permissions
must be printed either at the beginning or at the end of the
book.

37. If an author, living in Rome, desires to print a book,
not in the city of Rome but elsewhere, no other approba-
tion is required beyond that of the Cardinal Vicar and the
Master of the Apostolic Palace.

CHAPTER II.
Of the Duty of Censors in the Preliminary Examination of Books.

38. Bishops whose duty it is to grant permission for the
printing of books shall take care to employ in the exami-
nation of them men of acknowledged piety and learning.

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 419

concerning whose faith and honesty they may feel sure
that they will show neither favor nor ill-will, but, putting
aside all human affections, will look only to the glory of
God and the welfare of the people.

39. Censors must understand that, in the matter of
various opinions and systems, they are bound to judge with
a mind free from all prejudice, according to the precept
of Benedict XIV. Therefore they should put away all
attaclmient to their particular country, family, school, or
institute, and lay aside all partisan spirit. They must
keep before their eyes nothing but the dogmas of Holy
Church, and the common Catholic doctrine as contained
in the decrees of General Councils, the Constitutions of
the Roman Pontiffs, and the unanimous teaching of the
Doctors of the Church.

40. If, after this examination, no objection appears to
the publication of the book, the ordinary shall grant to
the author, in writing and without any fee whatsoever,
a license to publish, which shall be printed either at the
beginning or at the end of the work.

CHAPTER III.
Of the Books to be Submitted to Censorship.

41. All the faithful are bound to submit to preliminary
ecclesiastical censorship at least those books which treat of
Holy Scripture, sacred theology, ecclesiastical history,
canon law, natural theology, ethics, and other religious
or moral subjects of this character; and in general all
writings specially concerned with religion and morality.

42. The secular clergy, in order to give an example of
respect towards their ordinaries, ought not to publish
books, even when treating of merely natural arts and
sciences, without their knowledge.

They are also prohibited from undertaking the manage-
ment of newspapers or periodicals without the previoug
permission of their ordinaries.

420 THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.

CHAPTER IV.
Of Printers and Publishers of Books.

43. No book liable to ecclesiastical censorship may be
printed unless it bear at the beginning the name and sur-
name of both the author and the publisher, together with
the place and year of printing and publishing. If in any
particular case, owing to a just reason, it appears desirable
to suppress the name of the author, this may be permitted
by the ordinary.

44. Printers and publishers should remember that new
editions of an approved work require a new approbation;
and that an approbation granted to the original text does
not suffice for a translation into another language.

45. Books condemned by the Apostolic See are to be
considered as prohibited all over the world, and into what-
ever language they may be translated.

46. Booksellers, especially Catholics, should neither sell,
lend, nor keep books professedly treating of obscene sub-
jects. They should iiot keep for sale other prohibited
books, unless they have obtained leave through the or-
dinary from the Sacred Congregation of the Index; nor
sell such books to any person whom they do not prudently
judge to have the right to buy them.

CHAPTER V.
Of Penalties Against Transgressors of the General Decreet.

47. All and every one knowingly reading, without
authority of the Holy See, the books of apostates and
heretics defending heresy; or books of any author which
are by name prohibited by Apostolic Letters; also those
keeping, printing, and in any way defending such works;
incur ipso facto excommunication reserved in a special
manner to the Roman Pontiff.

THE PROHIBITION AND CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 421

48. Those who, without the approbation of the or-
dinary, print, or cause to be printed, books of Holy Scrip-
ture, or notes or commentaries on the same, incur ipso
facto excommunication, but not reserved.

49. Those who transgress the other prescriptions of
these General Decrees shall, according to the gravity of
their offence, be seriously warned by the bishop, and, if it
seem expedient, may also be punished by canonical pen-
alties.

We decree that these presents and whatsoever they
contain shall at no time be questioned or impugned for any
fault of subreption, or obreption, or of Our intention, or for
any other defect whatsoever; but are and shall be ever
vahd and efficacious, and to be inviolably observed, both
judicially and extra-judicially, by all of whatsoever rank
and pre-eminence. And We declare to be invalid and of
no avail, whatsoever may be attempted knowingly or un-
knowingly contrary to these, by any one, under any
authority or pretext whatsoever; all to the contrary
notwithstanding.

And We will that the same authority be attributed to
copies of these Letters, even if printed, provided they be
signed by the hand of a notary, and confirmed by the seal
of some one in ecclesiastical dignity, as to the indication of
Our will by the exhibition of these presents.

No man, therefore, may infringe or temerariously ven-
ture to contravene this document of Our constitution,
ordination, limitation, derogation, and will. If any one
shall so presume, let him know that he will incur the wrath
of Almighty God, and of the blessed apostles Peter and
Paul.

THE HOLY SPIRIT.

Encyclical Letter Divinum Illitd, May 4, 1897.

That divine office which Jesus Christ received from
His Father for the welfare of mankind, and most per-
fectly fulfilled, had for its final object to put men in pos-
session of the eternal life of glory, and proximately dur-
ing the course of ages to secure to them the life of divine
grace, which is destined eventur.lly to blossom into the life
of heaven. Wherefore Our Saviour never ceases to in-
vite, with infinite affection, all men, of every race and
tongue, into the bosom of His Church: Come ye all to Me,
I am the Life, I am the Good Shepherd. Nevertheless,
according to His inscrutable counsels, He did not will to
entirely complete and finish this office Himself on earth,
but as He had received it from the Father, so He trans-
mitted it for its completion to the Holy Ghost. It is
consoling to recall those assurances which Christ gave to
the body of His disciples a little before He left the earth:
It is expedient to you that I go: for if I go not, the Paraclete
tvill not come to rjou: but if I go, I will send Him to you} In
these words He gave as the chief reason of His departure
and His return to the Father the advantage which would
most certainly accrue to His followers from the coming
of the Holy Ghost, and at the same time He made it clear
that the Holy Ghost is equally sent by — and therefore
proceeds from — Himself and the Father; that He would
complete, in His office of Intercessor, Consoler, and Teacher,
the work which Christ Himself had begun in His mortal

* John xvi. 7.
422

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 423

life. For, in the redemption of the world, the completion
of the work was by divine Providence reserved to the
manifold power of that Spirit who, in the creation, adorned
the heavens ^ and filled the whole world?

Now "We have earnestly striven, by the help of His
grace, to follow the example of Christ Our Saviour, the
Prince of pastors, and the Bishop of our souls, by dili-
gently carrying on His office, entrusted by Him to the
apostles and chiefly to Peter, "whose dignity faileth not,
even in his unworthy successor," ^ In pursuance of this
object We have endeavored to direct all that we have
attempted and persistently carried out during a long
pontificate towards two chief ends: in the first place, to-
wards the restoration, both in rulers and peoples, of the
principles of the Christian life in civil and domestic society,
since there is no true fife for men except from Christ; and,
secondly, to promote the reunion of those who have fallen
away from the Catholic Church either by heresy or by
schism, since it is most undoubtedly the will of Christ
that all should be united in one flock under one Shepherd.
But now that We are looking forward to the approach of
the closing days of Our fife. Our soul is deeply moved to
dedicate to the Holy Ghost, who is the fife-giving Love,
all the work We have done during Our pontificate, that
He may bring it to maturity and fruitfulness. In order
better and more fully to carry out this Our intention, We
have resolved to address you at the approaching sacred
season of Pentecost concerning the indwelling and mi-
raculous power of the Holy Ghost; and the extent and effi-
ciency of His action, both in the whole body of the Church
and in the individual souls of its members, through the
glorious abundance of His divine graces. We earnestly
desire that, as a result, faith may be aroused in your minds
concerning the mystery of the adorable Trinity, and espe-

»Job xxvi. 13.
' Wisdom i. 7.
' St. Leo the Great, Sermon ii., on the Anniversary of his Election.

424 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

cially that piety may increase and be inflamed towards
the Holy Ghost, to whom especially all of us owe the grace
of following the paths of truth and virtue, for, as St. Basil
said, "Who denieth that the dispensations concerning man,
which have been made by the great God and our Saviour
Jesus Christ, according to the goodness of God, have been
fulfilled through the grace of the Spirit?" *

Before We enter upon this subject, it will be both desir-
able and useful to say a few words about the mystery of the
Blessed Trinity. This dogma is called by the Doctors of
the Church "the substance of the New Testament," that is
to say, the greatest of all mysteries, since it is the fountain
and origin of them all. In order to know and contemplate
this mystery, the angels were created in heaven and men
upon earth. In order to teach more fully this mystery,
which was but foreshadowed in the Old Testament, God
Himself came down from the angels unto men: No man
hath seen God at any time; the only begotten Son, who is in
the bosom of the Father, He hath declared Him? Who-
soever then writes or speaks of the Trinity must keep
before His eyes the prudent warning of the Angelic Doctor:
"When we speak of the Trinity, we must do so with cau-
tion and modesty, for, as St. Augustine saith, nowhere
else are more dangerous errors made, or is research more
difficult, or discovery more fruitful". ' The danger that
arises is lest the divine persons be confounded one with
the other in faith or worship, or lest the one nature in them
be separated: for "This is the Catholc faith, that we
should adore one God in Trinity and Trinity in Unity."
Therefore Our predecessor Innocent XII. absolutely refused
the petition of those who desired a special festival in honor
of God the Father. For, although the separate mysteries
connected with the Incarnate Word are celebrated on cer-
tain fixed days, yet there is no special feast on which the
Word is honored according to His divine nature alone.

» Of the Holy Ghost, c. xvi., v. 39. ' John I 18.

» Sumin. Th. la., q. xrri. De Trin. L i., c. 3.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 425

And even the Feast of Pentecost was instituted in the
earliest times, not simply to honor the Holy Ghost in Him-
self, but to commemorate His coming, or His external
mission. And all this has been wisely ordained, lest from
distinguishing the persons men should be led to distinguish
the divine essence. Moreover the Church, in order to pre-
serve in her children the purity of faith, instituted the Feast
of the Most Holy Trinity, which John XXII. afterwards
extended to the Universal Church. He also permitted
altars and churches to be dedicated to the Blessed Trinity,
and with the divine approval, sanctioned the Order for
the Ransom of Captives, which is specially devoted to the
Blessed Trinity and bears its name. Many facts confirm
its truths. The worship paid to the saints and angels, to
the Mother of God, and to Christ Himself, finally redounds
to the honor of the Blessed Trinity. In prayers addressed
to one person, there is also mention of the others; in the
litanies, after the individual persons have been separately
invoked, a conmion invocation of all is added; all psalms
and hymns conclude with the doxology to the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost; blessings, sacred rites, and sacra-
ments are either accompanied or concluded by the invoca-
tion of the Blessed Trinity. This was already foreshadowed
by the Apostle in those words : For of Him, and by Him,
and in Him, are all things: to Him be glory forever,''- thereby
signifying both the trinity of persons and the unity of
nature: for as this is one and the same in each of the per-
sons, so to each is equally owing supreme glory, as to one
and the same God. St. Augustine commenting upon this
testimony writes : "The words of the Apostle, 0/ ^m, and
by Him, and in Him, are not to be taken indiscriminately; of
Him refers to the Father, by Him to the Son, in Him to the
Holy Ghost. "^ The Church is accustomed most fittingly to
attribute to the Father those works of the divinity in
which power excels, to the Son those in which wisdom
excels, and those in which love excels to the Holy Ghost.

» Rom. 3d 36. ' De Trin. L vL, c. IO3 L L, c tt.

426 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

Not that all perfections and external operations are
not common to the divine persons; for "the operations
of the Trinity are indivisible, even as the essence of the
Trinity is indivisible" ^ because as the three di\dne per-
sons "are inseparable, so do they act inseparably." ' But
by a certain comparison, and a kind of affinity between
the operations and the properties of the persons, these
operations are attributed or, as it is said, "appropriated"
to one person rather than to the others. "Just as we
make use of the traces of similarity or likeness which we
find in creatures for the manifestation of the divine per-
sons, so do we use their essential attributes; and this
manifestation of the persons by their essential attributes
is called appropriation." ' In this manner the Father,
who is "the principal of the whole Godhead," * is also
the efficient cause of all things, of the Incarnation of the
Word, and the sanctification of souls; "of Him are all
things," of Him referring to the Father. But the Son,
the Word, the Image of God, is also the exemplary cause,
whence all creatures borrow their form and beauty, their
order and harmony. He is for us the way, the truth,
and the life: the reconciler of man with God. "By Him
are all things," by Him referring to the Son. The Holy
Ghost is the ultimate cause of all things, since, as the will
and all other things finally rest in their end, so He, who is
the divine goodness and the mutual love of the Father
and Son, completes and perfects, by His strong yet gentle
power, the secret work of man's eternal salvation. "In
Him are all things," in Him referring to the Holy Ghost.

THE HOLY GHOST AND THE INCARNATION.

Having thus paid the due tribute of faith and worship
owing to the Blessed Trinity, and which ought to be more

> St. Aug. De Trin., 1. i., ec. 4, 5

»St. Aug., ib.

* St. Th. la., q. xxxix., a. 7.

*St. Aug. De Trin. 1. iv., c. 2a

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 427

and more inculcated upon the Christian people, "We now
turn to the exposition of the power of the Holy Ghost.
And, first of all, we must look to Christ, the Founder of
the Church and Redeemer of our race. Among the ex-
ternal operations of God, the highest of all is the mystery
of the Incarnation of the Word, in which the splendor
of the divine perfections shines forth so brightly that
nothing more sublime can even be imagined, nothing else
could have been more salutary to the human race. Now
this work, although belonging to the whole Trinity, is still
appropriated especially to the Holy Ghost, so that the
gospels thus speak of the Blessed Virgin: She was found
loith child of the Holy Ghost,^ and that which is conceived
in her is of the Holy Ghost} And this is rightly attributed
to Him who is the Love of the Father and the Son, since
this great mystery of piety ^ proceeds from the infinite
love of God towards man, as St. John tells us : God so loved
the world as to give His only begotten Son.^ Moreover,
human nature was thereby elevated to a personal union
with the Word; and this dignity is given, not on account
of any merits, but entirely and absolutely through grace,
and therefore, as it were, through the special gift of the
Holy Ghost. On this point St. Augustine writes: "The
mamier in which Christ was born of the Holy Ghost indi-
cates to us the grace of God, by which humanity, with
no antecedent merits, at the first moment of its existence,
was united with the Word of God by so intimate a per-
sonal union that He who was the Son of man was also
the Son of God, and He who was the Son of God was also
the Son of man." * By the operation of the Holy Spirit,
not only was the conception of Christ accomplished, but
also the sanctification of His soul, which, in Holy Scrip-
ture is called His anointing} Wlierefore all His actions
were performed in the Holy Ghost,^ and especially the sac-

» Matt. i. 18, 20. * Enchir., c. xl. ; St. Th. 3a., q. xxxii., a. 1.

» 1 Tim. iii. 16. * Acts x. 38.

» John iii. 16. • St. Basil de Sp. S., c. xvi.

428 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

rifice of Himself: Christ, through the Holy Ghost, offered
Himself without spot to God} Considering this no one
can be surprised that all the gifts of the Holy Ghost inun-
dated the soul of Christ. In Him resided the absolute
fulness of grace, in the greatest and most efficacious man-
ner possible; in Him were all the treasures of wisdom and
knowledge, graces gratis datce, virtues, and all other gifts
foretold in the prophecies of Isaias,^ and also signified in
that miraculous dove which appeared at the Jordan, when
Christ, by His Baptism, consecrated its waters for a new
sacrament. On this the words of St. Augustine may
appropriately be quoted: "It would be absurd to say that
Christ received the Holy Ghost when He was already thirty
years of age, for He came to His Baptism without sin, and
therefore not without the Holy Ghost. At this time, then
(that is at His Baptism), He was pleased to prefigure His
Church, in which those especially who are baptized receive
the Holy Ghost." ^/ Therefore, by the conspicuous appa-
rition of the Holy Ghost over Christ and by His invisible
power in His soul, the twofold mission of the Spirit is fore-
shadowed, namely. His outward and visible mission in the
Church, and His secret indwelling in the souls of the just.

THE HOLY GHOST AND THE CHURCH.

The Church which, already conceived, came forth from
the side of the second Adam in His sleep on the cross,
first showed herself before the eyes of men on the great
day of Pentecost. On that day the Holy Ghost began to
manifest His gifts in the mystic body of Christ, by that
miraculous outpouring already foreseen by the prophet
Joel,* for the Paraclete "sat upon the apostles as though
new spiritual crowns were placed upon their heads m
tongues of fire." ^ Then the apostles "descended from

» Heb. ix. 14. ^Be Trin. 1. xv., c. 26.

»Isa. iv. 1; xi. 23. *Joel ii. 28, 29

• S. Cyril Hier. Catech. 17.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 429

the mountain/' as St. John Chrysostom writes, "not
bearing in their hands tables of stone hke Moses, but carry-
ing the Spirit in their mind, and pouring forth the treasure
and the fountain of doctrines and graces."^ Thus was
fully accomplished that last promise of Christ to His
apostles of sending the Holy Ghost, who was to complete
and, as it were, to seal the deposit of doctrine committed
to them under His inspiration. / have yet many things to
say to you, but you cannot hear them nov); but when He,
the Spirit of Truth, shall come, He will teach you all truth.^
For He who is the Spirit of Truth, inasmuch as He pro-
ceedeth both from the Father, who is the eternally True,
and from the Son, who is the substantial Truth, receiveth
from each both His essence and the fulness of all truth.
This truth He communicates to His Church, guarding
her by His all-powerful help from ever falling into error,
and aiding her to foster daily more and more the germs
of divine doctrine and to make them fruitful for the
welfare of the peoples. And since the welfare of the
peoples, for which the Church was established, abso-
lutely requires that this office should be continued for
all time, the Holy Ghost perpetually supplies life and
strength to preserve and increase the Church. / will
ask the Father, and He will give you another Paraclete, that
He may abide with you forever, the Spirit of Truths

By Him the bishops are constituted, and by their
ministry are multiplied not only the children, but also the
fathers — that is to say, the priests — to rule and feed the
Church by that blood wherewith Christ has redeemed
her. The Holy Ghost hath placed you bishops to rule the
Church of God, which He hath purchased with His own
blood* And both bishops and priests, by the miraculous
gift of the Spirit, have the power of absolving sins, accord-
ing to those words of Christ to the apostles: Receive ye
the Holy Ghost ; whose sins you shall forgive they are for-

1 In Matt. Horn. I., 2 Cor. iii. 3. 'John xiv. 16, 17.

« John x%'i. 12, 13. * Acts xx. 2a

430 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

given them, and whose you shall retain they are retained}
That the Church is a divine institution is most clearly
proved by the splendor and glory of those gifts and graces
with which she is adorned, and whose author and giver
is the Holy Ghost. Let it suffice to state that, as Christ
is the Head of the Church, so is the Holy Ghost her soul.
" What the soul is in our body, that is the Holy Ghost in
Christ's body, the Church."' This being so, no further
and fuller "manifestation and revelation of the divine
Spirit" may be imagined or expected; for that which
now takes place in the Church is the most perfect possible,
and will last until that day when the Church herself,
having passed through her militant career, shall be taken
up into the joy of the saints triumphing in heaven.

THE HOLY GHOST IN THE SOULS OF THE JUST,

The manner and extent of the action of the Holy Ghost
in individual souls is no less wonderful, although somewhat
more difficult to understand, inasmuch as it is entirely
invisible. This outpouring of the Spirit is so abundant,
that Christ Himself, from whose gift it proceeds, compares
it to an overflowing river, according to those words of
St. John: "He that believeth in Me, as the Scripture
saith, out of his midst shall flow rivers of living water";
to which testimony the Evangelist adds the explanation:
Now this He said of the Spirit which they should receive
who believed in Him' It is indeed true that in those of
the just who lived before Christ, the Holy Ghost resided
by grace, as we read in the Scriptures concerning the
prophets, Zachary, John the Baptist, Simeon, and Anna;
so that on Pentecost the Holy Ghost did not communicate
Himself in such a way " as then for the first time to begin
to dwell in the saints, but by pouring Himself forth more
abundantly, crowning, not beginning His gifts; not

» John XX. 22, 23. ' St. Aug. Serm. 187, de Temp.

*John viL 3S, 39.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 431

commencing a new work, but giving more abundantly." *
But if they also were numbered among the children of
God, they were in a state Uke that of servants, for as long
as the heir is a child he differeth nothing from a servant,
hut is under tutors and governors} Moreover, not only
was their justice derived from the merits of Christ who
was to come, but the communication of the Holy Ghost
after Christ was much more abundant, just as the price
surpasses in value the earnest and the reaUty excels the
image. Wherefore St. John declares: As yet the spirit
was not given, because Jesus was not yet glorified^ So
soon, therefore, as Christ, "ascending on high," entered
into possession of the glory of His Kingdom which He
had won with so much labor. He munificently opened out
the treasures of the Holy Ghost: He gave gifts to men*
For that giving or sending forth of the Holy Ghost after
Christ's glorification was to be such as had never been
before; not that there had been none before, but it had
not been of the same kind.*

Human nature is by necessity the servant of God:
"The creature is a servant, we are the servants of God
by nature." ' On account, however, of original sin, our
whole nature had fallen into such guilt and dishonor that
we had become enemies to God. We were by nature the
children of wrath.'' There was no power which could
raise us and deliver us from this ruin and eternal destruc-
tion. But God, the Creator of mankind and infinitely
merciful, did this through His only-begotten Son, by
whose benefit it was brought about that man was restored
to that rank and dignity whence he had fallen, and was
adorned with still more abundant graces. No one can

* St. Lreo the Great, Horn, iii, de Pentec,
» Gal. iv. 1, 2.

» John vii. 39.

* Eph. iv. 8.

» St. Aug., de Trin., L iv. c. 20.

* St. Cyr. Alex., Thesaur. L v., Ow i.
*Eph. iL 3.

432 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

express the greatness of this work of divine grace in the
souls of men. Wherefore, both in Holy Scripture and
in the writings of the fathers, men are styled regenerated,
new creatures, partakers of the divine nature, children
of God, god-like, and similar epithets. Now these great
blessings are justly attributed as especially belonging to
the Holy Ghost. He is "the Spirit of adoption of sons,
whereby we cry: Abba, Father." He fills our hearts
with the sweetness of paternal love: The Spirit Himself
giveth testimony to our spirit that we are the sons of God}
This truth accords with the similitude observed by the
Angelic Doctor between both operations of the Holy
Ghost; for through Him "Christ was conceived in hohness
to be by nature the Son of God," and " others are sanctified
to be the sons of God by adoption." ^ This spiritual gen-
eration proceeds from love in a much more noble manner
than the natural: namely, from the uncreated Love.

The beginnings of this regeneration and renovation of
man are by Baptism. In the sacrament, when the unclean
spirit has been expelled from the soul, the Holy Ghost
enters in and makes it like to Himself. That which is
bom of the Spirit, is spirit.' The same Spirit gives Himself
more abundantly in Confirmation, strengthening and con-
firming Christian life; from which proceeded the victory
of the martyrs and the triumph of the virgins over tempta-
tions and corruptions. We have said that the Holy
Ghost gives Himself: the charity of God is poured out into
our hearts by the Holy Ghost who is given to us.* For He
not only brings to us His divine gifts, but is the Author
of them and is Himself the supreme gift, who, proceeding
from the mutual love f the Father and the Son, is justly
believed to be and is called "Gift of God most high."
To show the nature and efficacy of this gift it is well to
recall the explanation given by the Doctors of the Church
of the words of Holy Scripture. They say that God is

' Rom viii. 15, 16. » John iii. 6.

»St. Th, 3ft, q. TTnrii., a. I * Rom. v. 5.

THB HOLY SPIRIT. 433

present and exists in all things, "by His power, in so far
as all things are subject to His power; by His presence,
inasmuch as all things are naked and open to His eyes; by
His essence, inasmuch as He is present to all as the cause
of their being." ^ But God is in man, not only as in in-
animate things, but because He is more fully known
and loved by him, since even by nature we spontaneously
love, desire, and seek after the good. Moreover God by
grace resides in the just soul as in a temple, in a most
intimate and peculiar manner. From this proceeds that
union of affection by which the soul adheres most closely
to God, mor so than the friend is united to his most loving
and beloved friend, and enjoys God in all fulness and
sweetness. Now this wonderful union, which is properly
called "indwelling," differing only in degree or state from
that with which God beatifies the saints in heaven, al-
though it is most certainly produced by the presence of
the whole Blessed Trinity — We will come to Him and make
our abode vnih Him^ — nevertheless is attributed in a
peculiar manner to the Holy Ghost. For, whilst traces
of divine power and wisdom appear even in the wicked
man, charity, which, as it were, is the special mark of
the Holy Ghost, is shared in only by the just. In harmony
with this, the same Spirit is called holy, for He, the first
and supreme Love, moves souls and leads them to sanctity,
which ultimately consists in the love of God. Wherefore
the Apostle, when calling us the temple of God, does not
expressly mention the Father, or the Son, or the Holy
Ghost: Know ye not that your members are the temple of
the Holy Ghost, who is in you, whom you have from God f '
The fulness of divine gifts is in many ways a consequence
of the indwelling of the Holy Ghost in the souls of the
just. For, as St. Thomas teaches, "when the Holy
Ghost proceedeth as love. He proceedeth in the character
of the first gift; whence Augustine saith that through

> St. Th. la. q. viii., a. 3. ' John xiv. 23.

» 1 Cor. vL 19.

434 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

the gift which is the Holy Ghost, many other special
gifts are distributed among the members of Christ." *
Among these gifts are those secret warnings and invita-
tions which from time to time are excited in our minds
and hearts by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost. Without
these there is no beginning of a good life, no progress,
no arriving at eternal salvation. And since these words
and admonitions are uttered in the soul in an exceedingly
secret manner, they are sometimes aptly compared in
holy writ to the breathing of a coming breeze, and the
Angelic Doctor likens them to the movements of the heart
which are wholly hidden in the living body. "Thy heart
has a certain hidden power, and therefore the Holy Ghost,
who invisibly vivifies and unites the Church, is compared
to the heart." ' More than this, the just man, that is
to say he who lives the Hfe of divine grace, and acts by
the fitting virtues as by means of faculties, has need of
those seven gifts which are properly attributed to the Holy
Ghost. By means of them the soul is furnished and
strengthened so as to be able to obey more easily and
promptly His voice and impulse. "WTierefore these gifts
are of such efficacy that they lead the just man to the
highest degree of sanctity ; and of such excellence that they
continue to exist even in heaven, though in a more perfect
way. By means of these gifts the soul is excited and
encouraged to seek after and attain the evangelical beati-
tudes which, like the flowers that come forth in the
spring-time, are the signs and harbingers of eternal beati-
tude. Lastly there are those blessed fruits, eniunerated
by the Apostle,' which the Spirit, even in this mortal
life, produces and shows forth in the just; fruits filled
with all sweetness and joy, inasmuch as they proceed
from the Spirit, "who is in the Trinity the sweetness
of both Father and Son, filling all creatures with infinite

' Summ. Th., la, q. xxxviii., a. 2. St. Aug. de Trin., L xv,, c. 19.
» Sv.mm. Th., 3a, q. vii., a. 1, ad 3.
'GaL V. 22.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 436

fulness and profusion." * The divine Spirit, proceed-
ing from the Father and the Word in eternal Ught of
sanctity, Himself both Love and Gift, after having mani-
fested Himself through the veils of figures in the Old Testa-
ment, poured forth all His fulness upon Christ and upon
His mystic Body, the Church; and called back by His
presence and grace men who were going away in wicked-
ness and corruption with such salutary effect that, being
no longer of the earth earthy, they rehshed and desired
quite other things, becoming of heaven heavenly.

These sublime truths, which so clearly show forth the
infinite goodness of the Holy Ghost towards us, cer-
tainly demand that we should direct towards Him the
highest homage of our love and devotion. Christians
may do this most effectually if they will daily strive
to know Him, to love Him, and to implore Him more
earnestly; for which reason may this Our exhortation,
flowing spontaneously from a paternal heart, reach
their ears. Perchance there are still to be found
among them, even nowadays, some who, if asked, as
were those of old by St. Paul the Apostle, whether they
have received the Holy Ghost, might answer in like man-
ner: We have not so much as heard whether there be a Holy
Ghost? At least there are certainly many who are
very deficient in their knowledge of Him. They frequently
use His name in their religious practices, but their faith
is involved in much darkness. Wherefore all preachers
and those having care of souls should remember that it
is their duty to instruct their people more diligently and
more fully about the Holy Ghost — avoiding, however,
difficult and subtle controversies, and eschewing the dan-
gerous folly of those who rashly endeavor to pry into
divine mysteries. What should be chiefly dwelt upon
and clearly explained is the multitude and greatness of
the benefits which have been bestowed, and are constantly
bestowed, upon us by this divine Giver, so that errors

' St. Aug. de Trin. L vi., c. 9. » Acts xix. 2.

436 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

and ignorance concerning matters of such moment may-
be entirely dispelled, as unworthy of "the children of
light." We urge this not only because it affects a mys-
tery by which we are directly guided to eternal Hfe, and
which must therefore be firmly beheved, but also because
the more clearly and fully the good is knowTi the more
earnestly it is loved. Now we owe to the Holy Ghost,
as we mentioned in the second place, love, because
He is God: Thou shall love the Lord thy God vnth
thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with
thy whole strength} He is also to be loved because
He is the substantial, eternal, primal Love, and
nothing is more lovable than love. And this all the
more because he has overwhelmed us with the greatest
benefits, which both testify to the benevolence of the
Giver and claim the gratitude of the receiver. This love
has a twofold and most conspicuous utility. In the first
place it will excite us to acquire daily a clearer knowledge
about the Holy Ghost; for, as the AngeHc Doctor says,
"the lover is not content with the superficial knowledge
of the beloved, but striveth to inquire intimately into all
that appertains to the beloved, ' and thus to penetrate
into the interior; as is said of the Holy Ghost, who is
the love of God, that He searcheth even the profound
things of God. " ^ In the second place it will obtain for
us a still more abundant supply of heavenly gifts; for
whilst a narrow heart contracteth the hand of the giver,
a grateful and mindful heart causeth it to expand. Yet
we must strive that this love should be of such a nature
as not to consist merely in dry speculations or external
observances, but rather to run forward towards action,
and especially to fly from sin, which is in a more special
manner offensive to the Holy Spirit. For whatever we
are, that we are by the divine goodness; and this good-
ness is specially attributed to the Holy Ghost. The sin-

' Deut. vi. 5.

' 1 Cor. ii. 10; Summ. Theol, la, 22e., q. 28, a. 2.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 437

ner offends this his Benefactor, abusing His gifts; and
taking advantage of His goodness becomes more hardened
in sin day by day. Again, since He is the Spirit of Truth,
whosoever faileth by weakness or ignorance may per-
haps have some excuse before Almighty God; but he
who resists the truth through malice and turns away
from it, sins most grievously against the Holy Ghost. In
our days this sin has become so frequent that those dark
times seem to have come which were foretold by St.
Paul, in which men, bhnded by the just judgment of God,
should take falsehood for truth, and should believe in
"the prince of this world," who is a har and the father
thereof, as a teacher of truth: God shall send them the
operation of error, to believe lying} In the last times soriie
shall depart from the faith; giving heed to the spirits of error
and the doctrines of devils? But since the Holy Ghost,
as We have said, dwells in us as in His temple, We must
repeat the warning of the Apostle: Grieve not the Holy
Spirit of God, whereby you are sealed.^ Nor is it enough
to fly from sin; every Christian ought to shine with the
splendor of virtue so as to be pleasing to so great and so
beneficent a guest: and first of all with chastity and holi-
ness, for chaste and holy things befit the temple. Hence
the words of the Apostle: Know you not that you are
the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwelleth in
you f But if any man violate the temple of God, him shall
God destroy. For the temple of God is holy, which you
are * — a terrible, indeed, but a just warning.

Lastly, we ought to pray to and invoke the Holy Spirit,
for each one of us greatly needs His protection and His
help. The more a man is deficient in wisdom, weak in
strength, borne down with trouble, prone to sin, so ought
he the more to fly to Him who is the never-ceasing fount
of fight, strength, consolation, and holiness. And chiefl}^
that first requisite of man, the forgiveness of sins, must
be sought for from Him: "It is the special character

1 2 Thess. ii. 10. » Eph. iv. 30.

» 1 Tim. iv. I. * 1 Cor. iU 16. 17.

438 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

of the Holy Ghost that He is the Gift of the Father and
the Son. Now the remission of sins is given by the Holy
Ghost as by the Gift of God."^ Concerning this Spirit
the words of the hturgy are very explicit: "For He
is the remission of all sins, " ' How He should be invoked
ia clearly taught by the Church, who addresses Him in
humble supplication, calhng upon Him by the sweetest of
names: "Come, Father of the poor! Come, Giver of gifts!
Come, Light of our hearts! O best of Consolers, sweet
Guest of the soul, our refreshment!" ' She earnestly
implores Him to wash, heal, water our minds and hearts,
and to give us who trust in Him "the merit of virtue,
the acquirement of salvation, and joy everlasting." Nor
can it be in any way doubted that He will hsten to such
prayer, since we read the words written by His own in-
spiration: The Spirit Himself asketh for us with unspeak-
able groanings.* Lastly, we ought confidently and contin-
ually to beg of Him to illimiinate us daily more and more
with His Hght and inflame us with His charity: for, thus
inspired with faith and love, we may press onward ear-
nestly towards our eternal reward, since He is the pledge of
our inheritance.^

Such, Venerable Brethren, are the teachings and ex-
hortations which We have seen good to utter, in order to
stimulate devotion to the Holy Ghost. We have no
doubt that, chiefly by means of your zeal and earnestness,
they will bear abundant fruit among Christian peoples.
We Ourselves shall never in the future fail to labor towards
so important an end; and it is even Our intention, in
whatever ways may appear suitable, to further cultivate
and extend this admirable work of piety. Meanwhile,
as two years ago, in Our Letter Provida Matris, We recom-

* Summ. Th. 3a, q. iii. a. 8, ad 3m.

* Roman Missal, Tuesday after Pentecost^
' Hymn, Veni SanctI Spiritus.

* Rom. viii. 26.
•Eph. i. U.

THE HOLY SPIRIT. 439

mended to Catholics special prayers &i the Feast of Pente-
cost, for the reunion of Christendom, so now We desire to
make certain further decrees on the same subject.

Wherefore, We decree and command that throughout
the whole Catholic Church, this year and in every sub-
sequent year, a novena shall take place before Whit-
Sunday, in all parish churches, and also, if the local or-
dinaries think fit, in other churches and oratories. To
all who take part in this novena and duly pray for Our
intention. We grant for each day an indulgence of seven
years and seven quarantines; moreover, a plenary in-
dulgence on any of the days of the novena, or on Whit-
Sunday itself, or on any day during the octave; provided
they shall have received the Sacraments of Penance and
the Holy Eucharist, and devoutly prayed for Our inten-
tion. We will that those who are legitimately prevented
from attending the novena, or who are in places where
the devotions cannot, in the judgment of the ordinary,
be conveniently carried out in church, shall equally enjoy
the same benefits, provided they make the novena pri-
vately and observe the other conditions. Moreover We
are pleased to grant, in perpetuity, from the Treasury of
the Church, that whosoever, daily during the octave
of Pentecost up to Trinity Sunday inclusive, offer again
publicly or privately any prayers, according to their
devotion, to the Holy Ghost, and satisfy the above con-
ditions, shall a second time gain each of the same indul-
gences. All these indulgences We also permit to be
applied as suffrages for the souls in purgatory.

And now Our mind and heart turn back to those hopes
with which We began, and for the accomplishment of
which We earnestly pray, and will continue to pray, to
the Holy Ghost. Unite, then, Venerable Brethren, your
prayers with Ours, and at your exhortation let all Chris-
tian peoples add their prayers also, invoking the powerful
and ever-acceptable intercession of the Blessed Virgin.
You know well the intimate and wonderful relatioua

440 THE HOLY SPIRIT.

existing between her and the Holy Ghost, so that she is
justly called His spouse. The intercession of the Blessed
Virgin was of great avail both in the mystery of the In-
carnation and in the coming of the Holy Ghost upon the
apostles. May she continue to strengthen our prayers
with her suffrages, that, in the midst of all the stress and
trouble of the nations, those divine prodigies may be
happily revived by the Holy Ghost, which were foretold
in the words of David: Send forth Thy Sjyirit and they
shall be created, and Thou shalt renew the face of the earth}

As a pledge of divine favor and a testimony of Our
affection, Venerable Brethren, to you, to your clergy and
people, We gladly impart in the Lord the Apostolic Bene-
diction.

»Ps. ciii 30.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN
RELIGION.

Apostolical Letter Testem Benevolentioe, January 22, 1899,
addressed to His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons, Arch-
bishop of Baltimore.

We send you this letter as a testimony of that devoted
affection in your regard, which during the long course of
Our Pontificate, We have never ceased to profess for you,
for your colleagues in the Episcopate, and for the whole
American people, willingly availing Ourselves of every
occasion to do so, whether it was the happy increase of
your church, or the works which you have done so wisely
and well in furthering and protecting the interests of
Catholicity. The opportunity also often presented itself
of regarding with admiration that exceptional disposition
of your nation, so eager for what is great, and so ready to
pursue whatever might be conducive to social progress
and the splendor of the State. But although the object
of this letter is not to repeat the praise so often accorded,
but rather to point out certain things which are to be
avoided and corrected, yet because it is written with that
same apostolic charity which We have always shown you,
and in which We have often addressed you. We trust that
you will regard it hkewise as a proof of Our love; and all
the more so as it is conceived and intended to put an end
to certain contentions which have arisen lately among
you, and which disturb the minds, if not of aU, at least
of many, to the no sHght detriment of peace.

You are aware, beloved Son, that the book entitled
"The Life of Isaac Thomas Hecker," chiefly through the
action of those who have undertaken to publish and

441

442 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

interpret it in a foreign language, has excited no small
controversy on account of certain opinions which are
introduced concerning the manner of leading a Christian
life. We, therefore, on account of Our apostolic office,
in order to provide for the integrity of the faith, and to
guard the security of the faithful, desire to write to you
more at length upon the whole matter.

The principles on which the new opinions We have
mentioned are based may be reduced to this: that, in
order the more easily to bring over to Catholic doctrine
those who dissent from it, the Church ought to adapt
herself somewhat to our advanced civiUzation, and,
relaxing her ancient rigor, show some indulgence to
modern popular theories and methods. Many think that
this is to be understood not only with regard to the rule
of life, but also to the doctrines in which the deposit of
faith is contained. For they contend that it is opportune,
in order to work in a more attractive way upon the wills
of those who are not in accord with us, to pass over certain
heads of doctrines, as if of lesser moment, or to so soften
them that they may not have the same meaning which
the Church has invariably held. Now, Beloved Son,
few words are needed to show how reprehensible is the
plan that is thus conceived, if we but consider the char-
acter and origin of the doctrine which the Church hands
down to us. On that point the Vatican Council says:
"The doctrine of faith which God has revealed is not
proposed like a theory of philosophy which is to be elabo-
rated by the human understanding, but as a divine deposit
delivered to the Spouse of Christ to be faithfully guarded
and infallibly declared. . . . That sense of the sacred
dogmas is to be faithfully kept which Holy Mother Church
has once declared, and is not to be departed from imder
the specious pretext of a more profound understanding." *

Nor is the suppression to be considered altogether free
from blame, which designedly omits certain principles of

' Conal de Fid. cath. c. iv.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION. 443

Catholic doctrine and buries them, as it were, in oblivion.
For there is the one and the same Author and Master of
all the truths that Christian teaching comprises: the only'
begotten Son who is in the bosom of the Father} That they
are adapted to all ages and nations is plainly deduced
from the words which Christ addressed to His apostles:
\joing therefore teach ye all nations: teaching them to observe
\dl things whatsoever I have commanded you: and behold I
%m with you all days even to the consummation of the world?
Wherefore the same Vatican Council says: "By the divine
and Catholic faith those things are to be believed which
are contained in the word of God either written or handed
down, and are proposed by the Church whether in solemn
decision or by the ordinary universal magisterium, to
be believed as having been divinely revealed." * Far be
it, then, for any one to diminish or for any reason what-
ever to pass over anything of this divinely delivered doc-
trine; whosoever would do so, would rather wish to
alienate Catholics from the Church than to bring over
to the Church those who dissent from it. Let them
return; indeed, nothing is nearer to Our heart; let all
those who are wandering far from the sheepfold of Christ
return; but let it not be by any other road than that
which Christ has pointed out.

The rule of life which is laid down for Catholics is not of
such a nature as not to admit modifications, according
to the diversity of time and place. The Church, indeed,
possesses what her Author has bestowed on her, a kind
and merciful disposition; for which reason from the very
beginning she willingly showed herself to be what Paul
proclaimed in his own regard: / became all things to all
men, that I might save all} The history of all past ages
is witness that the Apostolic See, to which not only the
office of teaching but also the supreme government of
the whole Church was committed, has constantly adhered

» John i. 18. 3 Const, de Fid. cath. c. iii.

' Matt, xxviii. 19 s. * 1 Cor. ix. 22,

444 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

to the same doctrine, in the same sense and in the same
mind: ^ but it has always been accustomed to so modify
the rule of life that, while keeping the divine right in-
violate, it has never disregarded the manners and customs
of the various nations which it embraces. If required
for the salvation of souls, who will doubt that it is ready to
do so at the present time? But this is not to be deter-
mined by the will of private individuals, who are mostly
deceived by the appearance of right, but ought to be
left to the judgment of the Church. In this all must
acquiesce who wish to avoid the censure of Our predecessor
Pius VI., who proclaimed the 18th proposition of the
Synod of Pistoia"to be injurious to the Church and to
the Spirit of God which governs her, inasmuch as it sub-
jects to scrutiny the discipline established and approved
by the Church, as if the Church could establish a useless
discipline or one which would be too onerous for Christian
liberty to bear."

But in the matter of which we are now speaking. Beloved
Son, the project involves a greater danger and is more
hostile to Catholic doctrine and discipline, inasmuch as the
followers of these novelties judge that a certain liberty
ought to be introduced into the Church, so that, limiting
the exercise and vigilance of its powers, each one of the
faithful may act more freely in pursuance of his own natu-
ral bent and capacity. They affirm, namely, that this is
called for in order to imitate that liberty which, though
quite recently introduced, is now the law and the founda-
tion of almost every civil community. On that point We
have spoken very much at length in the Letter written to
all the bishops about the constitution of States ; where We
have also shown the difference between the Church, which
is of divine right, and all other associations which subsist
by the free will of men. It is of importance, therefore, to
note particularly an opinion which is adduced as a sort
of argument to urge the granting of such liberty to Catho-

' Cone. Vatic. Ibid. c. iv.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION. 445'

lies. For they say, in speaking of the infallible teaching
of the Roman Pontiff, that after the solemn decision for-
mulated in the Vatican Council, there is no more need of
solicitude in that regard, and, because of its being now
out of dispute, a wider field of thought and action is thrown
open to individuals, A preposterous method of arguing,
surely. For if anything is suggested by the infalHble
teaching of the Church, it is certainly that no one should
wish to withdraw from it; nay, that all should strive to
be thoroughly imbued with and be guided by its spirit,
so as to be the more easily preserved from any private error
whatsoever. To this we may add that those who argue
in that wise quite set aside the wisdom and providence of
God; who when He desired in that very solemn decision
to affirm the authority and teaching office of the Apos-
tolic See, desired it especially in order the more efficaciously
to guard the minds of Catholics from the dangers of the
present times. The license which is commonly confounded
with liberty; the passion for saying and reviling every-
thing; the habit of thinking and of expressing everything
in print, have cast such deep shadows on men's minds,
that there is now greater utility and necessity for this
office of teaching than ever before, lest men should be
drawn away from conscience and duty. It is far, indeed,
from Our intention to repudiate all that the genius of the
time begets; nay, rather, whatever the search for truth
attains, or the effort after good achieves, will always be
welcome by Us, for it increases the patrimony of doctrine
and enlarges the limits of pubHc prosperity. But all this,
to possess real utility, should thrive without setting aside
the authority and wisdom of the Church.

We come now in due course to what are adduced as
consequences from the opinions which We have touched
upon ; in which if the intention seem not wrong, as We be-
lieve, the things themselves assuredly will not appear by
any means free from suspicion. For, in the first place,
all external guidance is rejected as superfluous, nay even

446 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

as somewhat of a disadvantage, for those who desire to
devote themselves to the acquisition of Christian perfec-
tion; for the Holy Ghost, they say, pours greater and
richer gifts into the hearts of the faithful now than in
times past; and by a certain hidden instinct teaches and
moves them with no one as an intermediary. It is indeed
not a little rash to wish to determine the degree in which
God communicates with men; for that depends solely on
His will ; and He Himself is the absolutely free giver of His
own gifts. The Spirit breatheth where He will} But
to every one of us is given grace according to the measure
of the giving of Christ.' For who, when going over the
history of the apostles, the faith of the rising Church,
the struggles and slaughter of the valiant martyrs, and
finally most of the ages past so abundantly rich in holy men,
wiU presume to compare the past with the present times
and to assert that they received a lesser outpouring of the
Holy Ghost? But, aside from that, no one doubts that
the Holy Ghost, by His secret incoming into the souls of
the just, influences and arouses them by admonition and
impulse. If it were otherwise, any external help and
guidance would be useless. "If any one positively affirms
that he can consent to the saving preaching of the Gospel
without the illumination of the Holy Ghost, who imparts
sweetness to all to consent to and accept the truth, he is
misled by a heretical spirit." ' But as we know by
experience these promptings and impulses of the Holy
Ghost for the most part are not discerned without the help,
and, as it were, without the preparation of an external
guidance. In this matter Augustine says: "It is he who
in good trees co-operates in their fruiting, who both waters
and cultivates them by any servant whatever from without,
and who by himself gives increase within." * That is
to say, the whole matter is according to the common law

' John iii. 8. ' Cone. Arausic. ii. can. vii.

'Eph. iv. 7. *De Grat. Christi. c. xix.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION. 447

by which God in His infinite providence has decreed that
men for the most part should be saved by men; hence He
has appointed that those whom He calls to a loftier degree
of hohness should be led thereto by men, "in order that,"
as Chrysostom says, "we should be taught by God through
men." ^ We have an illustrious example of this put
before us in the very beginning of the Church, for
although Saul, who was breathing threatenings and slaughter,'^
heard the voice of Christ Himself, and asked from Him,
Lord, what wilt Thou have me to do f he was nevertheless
sent to Ananias at Damascus: Arise and go into the city,
and there it shall be told thee what thou must do. It must
also be kept in mind that those who follow what is more
perfect are by the very fact entering upon a way of life
which for most men is untried and more exposed to error,
and therefore they, more than others, stand in need of a
teacher and a guide. This manner of acting has invari-
ably obtained in the Church. All, without exception,
who in the course of ages have been remarkable for science
and holiness have taught this doctrine. Those who reject
it, assuredly do so rashly and at their peril.

For one who examines the matter thoroughly, it is hard
to see, if we do away with all external guidance as these
innovators propose, what purpose the more abundant in-
fluence of the Holy Ghost, which they make so much of,
is to serve. In point of fact, it is especially in the cultiva-
tion of virtue that the assistance of the Holy Spirit is
indispensable; but those who affect these novelties extol
beyond measure the natural virtues as more in accordance
with the ways and requirements of the present day, and
consider it an advantage to be richly endowed with them,
because they make a man more ready and more strenuous
in action. It is hard to understand how those who are
imbued with Christian principles can place the natural
ahead of the supernatural virtues, and attribute to them
greater power and fecundity. Is nature, then, with grace

' Horn. i. in Inscr. altar. ' Act. Ap. c. is.

448 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

added to it, weaker than when left to its own strength?
and have the eminently holy men whom the Church
reveres and pays homage to, shown themselves weak and
incompetent in the natural order, because they have ex-
celled in Christian virtue? Even if we admire the some-
times splendid acts of the natural virtues, how rare is the
man who really possesses the habit of these natural virtues?
Who is there who is not disturbed by passions, sometimes
of a violent nature, for the persevering conquest of which,
just as for the observance of the whole natural law, man
must needs have some divine help? If we scrutinize more
closely the particular acts We have above referred to, we
shall discover that oftentimes they have more the appear-
ance than the reality of virtue. But let us grant that
these are real. If we do not wish to run in vain, if we
do not wish to lose sight of the eternal blessedness to which
God in His goodness has destined us, of what use are the
natural virtues unless the gift and strength of divine grace
be added? Aptly does St. Augustine say: "Great power,
and a rapid pace, but out of the course." ^ For as the
nature of man, because of our common misfortune, fell
into vice and dishonor, yet by the assistance of grace is
lifted up and borne onward with new honor and strength;
so also the virtues which are exercised not by the unaided
powers of nature, but by the help of the same grace, are
made productive of a supernatural beatitude and become
solid and enduring.

With this opinion about natural virtue, another is in-
timately connected, according to which all Christian vir-
tues are divided as it were into two classes, passive as they
say, and active; and they add the former were better
suited for the past times, but the latter are more in keeping
with the present. It is plain what is to be thought of
such division of the virtues. There is not and cannot be
a virtue which is really passive. "Virtue," says St.
Thomas, "denotes a certain perfection of a power; but

* In Ps. xTxi. 4.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM I^ RELIGION. 449

the object of a power is an act; and an act of virtue i»
nothing else than the good use of our free will";* the
divine grace of course helping, if the act of virtue is super-
natural. The one who would have Christian virtues to
be adapted, some to one age and others to another, has
forgotten the words of the Apostle: Whom he foreknew,
he also predestinated to be made conformable to the image of
His Son,^ The Master and exemplar of all sanctity is
Christ, to whose rule all must conform who wish to attain
to the thrones of the blessed. Now, then, Christ does not
at all change with the progress of the ages, but is yesterday
and to-day, and the same forever.^ To the men of all ages,
the phrase is to be applied : Learn of Me because I am meek,
and humble of heart,* and at all times Christ shows Himself
to us as becoming obedient unto death^ and in every age
also the word of the Apostle holds: And they that are
Christ's have cruxyijied their flesh with the vices and concupis-
cences.^ Would that more would cultivate those virtues
in our days, as did the holy men of bygone times ! Those
who by humbleness of spirit, by obedience and abstinence,
were powerful in word and work, were of the greatest
help not only to religion but to the State and society.

From this species of contempt of the evangehcal virtues,
which are wrongly called passive, it naturally follows that
the mind is imbued little by httle with a feeling of disdain
for the religious life. And that this is common to the
advocates of these new opinions we gather from certain
expressions of theirs about the vows which religious orders
pronounce. For, say they, such vows are altogether out
of keeping with the spirit of our age, inasmuch as they
narrow the limits of human liberty; are better adapted
to weak minds than to strong ones; avail little for Chris-
tian perfection and the good of human society, and rather
obstruct and interfere with it. But how false these

» I. II. a. I. * Matt. xi. 29.

» Rom. viii. 29. ' Philip, ii. 8.

•Heb. xiii. 8. • Galat. v. 24.

450 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

assertions are, is evident from the usage and doctrine of
the Church, which has always given the highest approval
to rehgious Hfe. And surely not undeservedly. For
those who, not content with the common duties of the
precepts, enter of their own accord upon the evangelical
counsels, in obedience to a divine vocation, present them-
selves to Christ as His prompt and valiant soldiers. Are
we to consider this a mark of weak minds? In the more
perfect manner of hfe is it unprofitable or hurtful? Those
who bind themselves by the vows of reUgion are so far
from throwing away their Uberty that they enjoy a nobler
and fuller one — that, namely, by whichChrist has set ils jree}
What they add to this — namely, that religious life helps
the Church not at all or very httle — apart from being inju-
rious to religious orders, will be admitted by no one who has
read the history of the Church. Did not your own United
States receive from the members of rehgious orders the
beginning of its faith and civihzation? For one of them
recently, and it redounds to your credit, you have decreed
that a statue should be pubHcly erected. And at this
very time, with what alacrity and success are these rehg-
ious orders doing their work wherever we find them!
How many of them hasten to impart to new lands the hfe
of the Gospel and to extend the boundaries of civihzation
with the greatest earnestness of soul and amid the greatest
dangers 1 From them no less than from the rest of the
clergy the Christian people obtain preachers of the Word
of God, directors of conscience, instructors of youth, and
the entire Church examples of holy hves. Nor is there
any distinction of praise between those who lead
an active life and those who, attracted by seclusion,
give themselves up to prayer and mortification of
the body. How gloriously they have merited from
human society, and do still merit, they should be aware
who are not ignorant of how the continual prayer of a just

»Galat iv. 31.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION. 451

man,^ especially when joined to affliction of the body,
avails to propitiate and conciliate the majesty of God.

If there are any, therefore, who prefer to unite together
in one society without the obligation of vows, let them do
as they desire. That is not a new institution in the Church,
nor is it to be disapproved. But let them beware of
setting such association above religious orders ; nay rather,
since mankind is more prone now than heretofore to the
enjoyment of pleasure, much greater esteem is to be
accorded to those who have left all things and have followed
Christ.

Lastly, not to delay too long, it is also maintained that
the way and the method which Catholics have followed
thus far for recaUing those who differ from us is to be aban-
doned and another resorted to. In that matter, it suffices
to advert that it is not prudent. Beloved Son, to neglect
what antiquity, with its long experience, guided as it is
by apostoUc teaching, has stamped with its approval.
From the word of God we have it that it is the office of all
to labor in helping the salvation of our neighbor in the
order and degree in which each one is. The faithful indeed
will most usefully fulfil their duty by integrity of life, by
the works of Christian charity, by instant and assiduous
prayer to God. But the clergy should do so by a wise
preaching of the Gospel, by the decorum and splendor
of the sacred ceremonies, but especially by expressing in
themselves the form of doctrine which the apostles de-
livered to Titus and Timothy. So that if among the dif-
ferent methods of preaching the word of God, that some-
times seems preferable by which those who dissent from
us are spoken to, not in the church but in any private and
proper place, not in disputation but in amicable confer-
ence, such method is indeed not to be reprehended; pro-
vided, however, that those who are devoted to that work
by the authority of the bishop be men who have first given
proof of science and virtue. For We think that there are

* James v. 16.

452 TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION.

very many among you who differ from Catholics rather
through ignorance than because of any disposition of the
will, who, perchance, if the truth is put before them
in a familiar and friendly manner, may more easily be led
to the one sheepfold of Christ.

Hence, from all that We have hitherto said, it is clear,
Beloved Son, that We cannot approve the opinions which
some comprise under the head of Americanism. If, indeed,
by that name be designated the characteristic qualities
which reflect honor on the people of America, just as other
nations have what is special to them; or if it implies the
condition of your commonwealths, or the laws and cus-
toms which prevail in them, there is surely no reason why
We should deem that it ought to be discarded. But
if it is to be used not only to signify, but even to
commend the above doctrines, there can be no doubt
but that our Venerable Brethren the bishops of America
would be the first to repudiate and condemn it, as being
especially unjust to them and to the entire nation as well.
For it raises the suspicion that there are some among you
who conceive of and desire a church in America different
from that which is in the rest of the world. One in the
unity of doctrine as in the unity of government, such is
the Catholic Church, and, since God has established its
centre and foundation in the Chair of Peter, one which is
rightly called Roman, for where Peter is there is the
Church. Wherefore he who wishes to be called by the
name of Catholic ought to employ in truth the words of
Jerome to Pope Damasus, "I following none as the first
except Christ am associated in communion with your
Beatitude, that is, with the Chair of Peter; upon that
Rock I know is built the Church; whoever gathereth not
with thee scattereth." *

What We write. Beloved Son, to you in particular, by
reason of Our office, we shall take care to have communi-
cated to the rest of the bishops of the United States,

» S. Ambr. in Pa. xi. 57.

TRUE AND FALSE AMERICANISM IN RELIGION. 453

expressing again that love in which we include your whole
nation, which as in times past has done much for rehgion
and bids fair with God's good grace to do still more in the
future.

To you and all the faithful of America We give most
lovingly as an augury of divine assistance Our Apostolical
Benediction.

ON THE CONSECRATION OF MANKIND TO THE
SACRED HEART OF JESUS.

Encyclical Letter Annum Sacrum, May 25, 1899.

But a short time ago, as you weU know. We, by letters
apostolic, and following the custom and ordinances of Our
predecessors, commanded the celebration in this city, at
no distant date, of a Holy Year. And now, to-day in
the hope and with the object that this religious celebration
shall be more devoutly performed, We have traced and
recommended a striking design from which, if all shall
follow it out with hearty good-will. We not unreasonably
expect extraordinary and lasting benefits for Christendom
in the first place, and also for the whole human race.

Already more than once We have endeavored, after the
example of Our predecessors Innocent XII., Benedict XIII.,
Clement XIII., Pius VI., Pius VII,, and Pius IX., de-
voutly to foster and bring out into fuller light that most
excellent form of devotion which has for its object the
veneration of the Sacred Heart of Jesus: this We did
especially by the decree given on June 28, 1889, by which
We raised the feast under that name to the dignity of the
first class. But now We have in mind a more signal form
of devotion which shall be in a manner the crowning
perfection of all the honors that people have been accus-
tomed to pay to the Sacred Heart, and which We con-
fidently trust will be most pleasing to Jesus Christ, our
Redeemer. This is not the first time, however, that the
design of which We speak has been mooted. Twent}^-
five years ago, on the approacli of the solemnities of the

454

CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS. 455

second centenary of the blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque's
reception of the divine command to propagate the wor-
ship of the Sacred Heart, many letters from all parts,
not merely from private persons but from bishops also,
were sent to Pius IX. begging that he would consent to
consecrate the whole hirnian race to the most Sacred
Heart of Jesus. It was thought best at the time to post-
pone the matter in order that a well-considered decision
might be arrived at: meanwhile permission was granted
to individual cities which desired it thus to consecrate
themselves, and a form of consecration was drawn up.
Now, for certain new and additional reasons, We con-
sider that the plan is ripe for fulfilment.

This world-wide and solemn testimony of allegiance
and piety is especially appropriate to Jesus Christ, who
is the Head and supreme Lord of the race. His empire
extends not only over Catholic nations and those who
having been duly washed in the waters of holy Baptism,
belong of right to the Church, although erroneous opinions
keep them astray, or dissent from her teaching cuts them
off from her care; it comprises also all those who are de-
prived of the Christian faith, so that the whole human
race is most truly under the power of Jesus Christ. For
He v/ho is the only-begotten Son of God the Father,
having the same substance with Him and being the bright-
ness of His glory and the figure of His substance,^ neces-
sarily has everything in common with the Father, and
therefore sovereign power over all things. This is why
the Son of God thus speaks of Himself through the Prophet:
But I am appointed king hy Him over Sion, His holy moun-
tain. . . . The Lord said to Me, Thou art My Son, this
day have I begotten Thee. Ask of Me and I will give Thee
the Gentiles for Thy inheritance, and the utmost parts of the
earth for Thy possession? By these words He declares that
He has power from God over the whole Church, which is
signified by Mount Sion, and also over the rest of the

» Hebrewi 13, » Ps. ii. 6-&

456 CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS.

world to its uttermost ends. On what foundation this
sovereign power rests is made sufficiently plain by the
words, Thou art My Son. For by the very fact that He
is the Son of the King of all, He is also the heir of all His
Father's power: hence the words — I will give Thee the
Gentiles for Thy inheritance, which are similar to those used
by Paul the Apostle, whom He hath appointed heir of all
things}

But we should now give most special consideration to
the declarations made by Jesus Christ, not through the
apostles or the prophets, but by His own words. To the
Roman governor who asked Him, Art Thou a king, then f
He answered imhesitatingly. Thou say est that I am a
king.^ And the greatness of this power and the bound-
lessness of His kingdom is still more clearly declared in
these words to the apostles : All power is given to Me in
heaven and on earth} If^ then, all power has been given to
Christ, it follows of necessity that His empire must be
supreme, absolute and independent of the will of any
other, so that none is either equal or like unto it: and
since it has been given in heaven and on earth it ought
to have heaven and earth obedient to it. And verily
He has acted on this extraordinary and peculiar right
when He commanded His apostles to preach His doctrine
over the earth, to gather all men together into the one
body of the Church by the baptism of salvation, and to
bind them by laws which no one could reject without
risking his eternal salvation.

But this is not all. Christ reigns not only by natural
right as the Son of God but also by a right that He has
acquired. For He it was who snatched us from the powers
of darkness,* and gave Himself for the redemption of all}
Therefore not only Catholics, and those who have duly
received Christian Baptism, but also all men, individually

» Heb. i. 2. » Matt, xxviii 18.

' John xviii. 37. * Coloss. L 13.

* 1 Tim. ii. 6.

CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS. 457

and collectively, have become to Him a purchased people}
St. Aiigvistine's words are therefore to the point when he
says: "You ask what price He paid? See what He gave
and you will understand how much He paid. The price
was the blood of Christ What could cost so much but
the whole world, and all its people? The great price He
paid was paid for all." ^

How it comes about that infidels themselves are sub-
ject to the power and dominion of Jesus Christ is clearly
shown by St. Thomas, who gives us the reason and its
explanation. For having put the question whether His
judicial power extends to all men, and having stated that
judicial authority flows naturally from royal authority, he
concludes decisively as follows: "All things are subject to
Christ as far as His power is concerned, although they are
not all subject to Him in the exercise of that power." ' This
sovereign power of Christ over men is exercised by truth,
justice, and, above all, by charity.

To this twofold ground of His power and domination
He graciously allows us, if we think fit, to add volun-
tary consecration. Jesus Christ, our God and our Re-
deemer, is rich in the fullest and perfect possession of
all things : we, on the other hand, are so poor and needy
that we have nothing of our own to offer Him as a gift.
But yet, in His infinite goodness and love, He in no way
objects to our giving and consecrating to Him what is
already His, as if it were really our own; nay, far from
refusing such an offering. He positively desires it and asks
for it: "My son, give Me thy heart." We are, therefore,
able to be pleasing to Him by the good-will and the affec-
tion of our soul. For by consecrating ourselves to Him
we not only declare our open and free acknowledgment
and acceptance of His authority over us, but we also
testify that if what we offer as a gift were really our own,
we would still offer it with our whole heart. We also beg

> 1 Peter ii. 9. ^ T. 120 Jon.

»3 P.. Q. 69 A.

458 CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS.

of Him that He would vouchsafe to receive it from us,
though clearly His own. Such is the efficacy of the act
of which We speak, such is the meaning underlying Our
words.

And since there is in the Sacred Heart a symbol and a
sensible image of the infinite love of Jesus Christ which
moves us to love one another, therefore is it fit and proper
that we should consecrate ourselves to His most Sacred
Heart — an act which is nothing else than an offering and a
binding of one's self to Jesus Christ, seeing that whatever
honor, veneration, and love is given to this divine Heart
is really and tmly given to Christ Himself.

For these reasons "We urge and exhort all who know and
love this divine Heart willingly to undertake this act of
piety ; and it is Our earnest desire that all should make it
on the same day, that so the aspirations of so many thou-
sands who are performing this act of consecration may be
borne to the temple of heaven on the same day. But shall
We allow to slip from Our remembrance those innumerable
others upon whom the light of Christian truth has not yet
shined? We hold the place of Him who came to save that
which was lost, and who shed His blood for the salvation
of the whole human race. And so We greatly desire to
bring to the true life those who sit in the shadow of death.
As We have already sent messengers of Christ over the
earth to instruct them^ so now, in pity for their lot, with all
Our soul We commend them, and as far in Us lies We
consecrate them to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. In this way
this act of devotion, which We recommend, will be a bless-
ing to all. For having performed it, those in w^hose hearts
are the knowledge and love of Jesus Christ will feel that
faith and love increased. Those who knowing Christ, yet
neglect His law and its precepts, may still gain from His
Sacred Heart the flame of charity. And lastly, for those
still more unfortunate, who are struggling in the darkness
of superstition, we shall all with one mind implore the
assistance of heaven that Jesus Christ, to whose power

CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS. 459

they are subject, may also one day render them submissive
to its exercise ; and that not only in the life to come, when
He will fulfil His will upon all men, by saving some and
punishing others (St. Thomas), but also in this mortal
life by giving them faith and holiness. May they by
these virtues strive to honor God as they ought, and to
win everlasting happiness in heaven.

Such an act of consecration, since it can establish or
draw tighter the bonds which naturally connect pubhc
affairs with God, gives to States a hope for better things.
In these latter times especially, a policy has been followed
which has resulted in a sort of wall being raised between
the Church and civil society. In the constitution and
administration of States the authority of sacred and di\dne
law is utterly disregarded, with a view to the exclusion of
religion from having any constant part in public hfe. This
policy almost tends to the removal of the Christian faith
from our midst, and, if that were possible, of the banish-
ment of God Himself from the earth. When men's minds
are raised to such a height of insolent pride, what wonder
is it that the greater part of the human race should have
fallen into such disquiet of mind and be buffeted by waves
so rough that no one is suffered to be free from anxiety
and peril? When religion is once discarded it follows of
necessity that the surest foundations of the public welfare
must give way, whilst God, to inflict on His enemies the
punishment they so richly deserve, has left them the prey
of their own evil desires, so that they give themselves up
to their passions and finally wear themselves out by excess
of liberty.

Hence that abundance of evils which have now for a
long time settled upon the world, and which pressingly call
upon us to seek for help from Him by whose strength alone
they can be driven away. Who can he be but Jesus Christ,
the only-begotten Son of God ? For there is no other
name under heaven given to men whereby we must he saved.*

1 Acts iv. 12.

460 CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS.

We must have recourse to Him who is the Way, the Truth,
and the Life. We have gone astray and we must return
to the right path : darkness has overshadowed our minds,
and the gloom must be dispelled by the light of truth :
death has seized upon us, and we must lay hold of life.
It will at length be possible that our many wounds be
healed and all justice spring forth again with the hope
of restored autiiority; that the splendors of peace be
renewed, and swords and arms drop from the hand when
all men shall acknowledge the empire of Christ and will-
ingly obey His word, and every tongue shall confess that
the Lard Jesus Christ is in the glory of God the Father}

"WTien the Church, in the days immediately succeeding
her institution, was oppressed beneath the yoke of the
Caesars, a young emperor saw in the heavens a cross,
which became at once the happy omen and cause of the
glorious victory that soon followed. And now, to-day,
behold another blessed and heavenly token is offered to
our sight — the most Sacred Heart of Jesus, with a cross
rising from it and shining forth with dazzling splendor
amidst flames of love. In that Sacred Heart all our
hopes should be placed, and from it the salvation of men
is to be confidently besought.

Finally, there is one motive which We are unwilling to
pass over in silence, personal to Ourselves it is true, but
still good and weighty, which moves Us to imdertake this
celebration. God, the author of every good, not long ago
preserved Our life by curing Us of a dangerous disease.
We now wish, by this increase of the honor paid to the
Sacred Heart, that the memory of this great mercy should
be brought prominently forward, and Our gratitude be
publicly acknowledged.

For these reasons. We ordain that on th.e ninth, tenth,
and eleventh of the coming month of June, in the prin-
cipal church of every town and village, certain appointed
prayers be said, and on each of these days there be added

»Phil. ii. 11.

CONSECRATION TO THE SACRED HEART OF JESUS. 461

to the other prayers the Litany of the Sacred Heart ap-
proved by Our authority. On the last day the form of
consecration shall be recited which, Venerable Brethren,
We send to you with these letters.

As a pledge of divine benefits, and in token of Our
paternal benevolence to you, and to the clergy and people
committed to your care. We lovingly grant in the Lord the
ApostoHc Benediction.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.
Encyclical Letter Tametsi, November 1, 1900.

The outlook, Venerable Brethren, is not without concern
for us; nay, there are many grave reasons for alarm, and
the causes of evil in public and private are numerous and
of long standing. And yet the end of the century does
seem, by the divine mercy, to bring some hope and con-
solation.

No one can doubt that the reawakened attention to
spiritual things and the revival of piety and faith are
helping to avert disaster. That there is a very general
growth in these virtues at the present time we have ample
assurance. In the midst of the allurements of the world,
and in spite of many obstacles in the path of piety, great
multitudes, at the mere suggestion of the Pontiff, flock
from all sides to the threshold of the holy apostles;
coming from far and near to show their devotion to their
religion, and, confiding in the proffered indulgences of
the Church, to seek with eagerness the means of attaining
their eternal salvation. Nor could any one fail to be
moved by the extraordinary outburst of piety which
has been displayed towards the Saviour of mankind.

The ardor with v^hich so many thousands from ail parts
of the world have imited in confessing the name of Jesus
Christ and celebrating His praises is not unworthy of the
best ages of the Christian faith. Would that this fire
of the faith of our forefathers might leap into a conflagra-
tion! Would that the excellent example of so many
might arouse the rest of the world! For the age needs

462

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 463

more than anything else the restoration among the nations
of the Christian spirit and the virtues of former daj'-s.
It is a calamity that so many turn a deaf ear and hear
not the admonition conveyed by such a reawakening of
piety. If they "knew the gift of God," if they considered
that nothing more miserable could happen to them than
to have revolted against the Liberator of the world and
to have abandoned the law and the life of Christianity,
they would surely rouse themselves and hasten of their
own accord to turn and flee from the destruction most
certainly impending over them.

To uphold on earth and to extend the empire of the
Son of God and to promote the salvation of men by the
dissemination of divine benefits is so greatly and so
peculiarly the office of the Church that her authority and
power rests mainly on the performance of this task. To
this end We trust We have labored to the best of Our
ability in the difficult and anxious administration of
Our Pontificate; while it is your ordinary and, indeed,
daily practice. Venerable Brethren, to give especial thought
and care in the same work. But both you and We ought,
in these times, to make still greater efforts, and in particu-
lar on the occasion of the Jubilee, to endeavor to spread
more widely the knowledge and love of Jesus Christ, by
teaching, persuading, and exhorting, if perchance Our
voice may be heard, not only by those who are accustomed
to hear Christian doctrine attentively, but also by the
unhappy remainder, who, while nominally Christian, pass
their lives without either faith in Christ or love for Him.
For these especially We grieve; and these, in particular,
We would fain have consider both what they are doing and
whither they are sure to go unless they repent in time.

Never to have known Jesus Christ in any way is the
greatest of misfortunes, but it involves no perversity or
ingratitude. But, after having known, to reject or forget
Him, is such a horrible and mad crime as to be scarcely
credible. For He is the origin and source of all good,

464 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

and just as mankind could not be freed from slavery
but by the sacrifice of Christ, so neither can it be preserved
but by His power. Neither is there salvation in any other.
For there is no other name under heaven given to men, whereby
we must be saved} What the hfe of men is from which
Jesus has been expelled, Jesus "the Power of God and
the Wisdom of God," what is its moraUty and its end,
may be learned from the example of nations which have not
the light of Christianity. Any one who recalls for a moment
that mental bhndness which St. Paul alludes to,^ the
depravity of their nature, the abominable character of
their vices and superstitions, must feel penetrated with hor-
ror, and, at the same time, with pity for them.

What We here speak of is a matter of common knowl-
edge, but not usually dwelt upon or thought of. There
would not be so many alienated by pride or buried in sloth
if they recollected what benefits they had received from
God, what Christ has rescued them from and to what He
has brought them. Disinherited and exiled, the human
race for ages was hurrying to destruction, enthralled by
those dreadful evils which the sin of our first parents
had begotten and by other woes beyond the power of
man to remedy, when Christ our Lord came down from
heaven and appeared as our Redeemer. In the first
dawn of the world's history, God Himself had promised
Him to us, as the victor and conqueror of "the serpent";
succeeding ages looked forward to His advent with eager
longing; holy prophets had long and plainly foretold
that on Him all our hopes depended; nay, the various
fortunes of the chosen people, their histoiy, their institu-
tions, their laws, their sacrifices and ceremonies, had
clearly and distinctly prefigured that the salvation of
humanity would be wrought and completed in Him, who
it was declared should be at once the High Priest and
propitiatory Victim, the Restorer of human liberty, the
Prince of peace, the Teacher of all nations, foimding a

» Acts iv. 12. » Rom. i. 21.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 465

kingdom which should endure forever. By these titles,
and under these images and prophetic utterances, various
in kind, but agreeing in sense. He was designated as the
One who for the exceeding love wherewith He loved us
should one day give His life for our salvation. Accord-
ingly, when the time of the divine counsel was ripe, the
only-begotten Son of God, being made man, offered an
abundant and complete satisfaction for men to His of-
fended Father, and by so great a price redeemed and
made the human race His own. You are not redeemed
with corruptible things ds gold and silver . . . but with
the frecious blood of Christ, as of a lamb unspotted and
undefiled} Accordingly, although all men without ex-
ception were already subject to His power and sway,
because He is the Creator and Preserver of all. He made
them His a second time by redeeming them in the truest
and most hteral sense. You are not your own, for you are
bought with a great price? Hence all things are re-estab-
lished in Christ by God. The mystery of His will, accord-
ing to His good pleasure, which He hath purposed in Him,
in the dispensation of the fulness of times, to re-establish
all things in Christ.^ So that when Jesus had blotted
out the handwriting which was contrary to us, and fastened
it to the cross, the wrath of heaven was immediately
appeased; the disordered and erring race of man had the
bonds of their ancient slavery loosed, the will of God was
reconciled to them, grace restored, the way to eternal
happiness opened, and the title to possess and the means
of attaining it both given back. Then, as though awakened
from a long-lingering and deadly lethargy, man beheld
the light of truth so long desired, but for generations
sought in vain; he recognized, in particular, that he was
bom for much higher and more splendid things than the
frail and fleeting objects of sense, to which he had for-
merly confined his thoughts and pursuits, and that this was

» 1 Peter i. 18, 19. » 1 Cor. vL 19, 20.

' Eph. L 9, 10.

466 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

in fine the constitution and supreme law of human life,
and the end to which all must tend, that as we came from
God so we should one day return to Him. From this
beginning and on this foundation consciousness of human
dignity was restored and lived again; the sense of a conmion
brotherhood took possession of men's hearts; their rights
and duties in consequence were perfected or established
anew and virtues beyond the imagination or conception
of ancient philosophy were revived. So men's purposes,
tenor of life, and characters were changed, and the knowl-
edge of the Redeemer having spread far and wide, and
His power having penetrated into the very life-blood of
nations, expelling their ignorance and their ancient vices,
a marvellous transformation took place, which, origi-
nating in Christian civilization, utterly changed the face
of the earth.

In recalUng these things. Venerable Brethren, there is
an infinite sweetness experienced, but at the same time,
a serious warning is conveyed — namely to return thanks
with our whole heart and soul and to see that others, so
far as in us lies, return thanks to our divine Saviour,

We live in an age remote from the inception and begin-
ning of our redemption; but what matters it, since the
power of redemption is perpetual, and the benefits thereof
are abiding and everlasting. He who once restored our
fallen nature, preserves, and will continue to preserve it.
He gave Himself a redemption for all; ^ in Christ all shall be
made alive; ^ and of His kingdom there shall he no end*
Thus, according to the eternal counsel of God, the salva-
tion of all and each wholly depends on Christ Jesus ; those
who forsake Him, in their blind fury, seek by that very
act their own personal destruction, and at the same time
as far as they can, make society in general fall back into
the very abyss of evils and disasters from which the
Redeemer out of His love had delivered mankind.

' Tim. ii. 6. » 1 Cor. xv. 22.

*Luke i. 33.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 467

Men wander very far in aimless error from the goal once
they have entered upon devious paths. Likewise, if the
pure and unsullied hght of truth be rejected, men's minds
must needs be buried in darkness and deceived by the
depraved fancies that meet them at every step. What
hope can there be of health for those who forsake the
fountain and source of life? Christ is alone the way, the
truth, and the life,* and if we despise Him, we lose these
three indispensable requisites of salvation.

There is no need to dilate upon what experience con-
tinually teaches, and in his heart every one feels, even
when abounding in earthly goods that only in God can
the heart of man find absolute and complete repose. In
very truth, the end of man is God ; and the time we spend
on earth is more truly likened and compared to a pilgrim-
age. Christ, then, is for us the way, because from this
mortal journeying of ours, which is so especially toilsome
and so beset with danger, we can only attain to God, our
chief and final good, with Christ to guide and direct us.
No man cometh to the Father but hy Me} But hy Me —
that is to say, first and chiefly, by His grace. Yet, if
His precepts and laws are despised, His grace is void. As
it behooved him to do, when He had wrought our salva-
tion, Jesus Christ left us His law, as the custodian and
director of the human race, so that under its guidance
men might turn from evil ways and safely attain to God.
Go teach ye all nations . . . teaching them to observe all
things whatsoever I have commanded you ; ^ keep My com-
mandments.* By this we ought to understand that it is
the chief and absolutely essential thing for those who
confess Christ to be docile to the precepts of Jesus Christ,
and to hold our will submissive and devoted to Him as
Our Lord and supreme Ruler. A great undertaking
and frequently entailing a hard struggle and demanding
much labor and steadiness of purpose. For, albeit human

» John xiv. 6. *Matt. xxviii. 19, 20.

» Ibid. * John xiv. 15.

468 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

nature has been restored by the sacrifice of Our Redeemer,
yet there remains in every one a certain debility, weakness
and corruption.

Various appetites drag a man hither and thither, and
the allurements of external things impel the soul to follow
its own pleasure in place of Christ's cormnand. But yet
we must struggle and fight against our desires "unto the
obedience of Christ"; and, unless they are subservient to
reason, they become our masters, and separating us from
Christ make us body and soul their slaves. "Men cor-
rupt in mind, reprobate concerning the Faith, do not deliver
themselves from slavery . . . for they are slaves to three
sorts of desire, that of pleasure, or pride of place, or display
of worldly pomp." * In this contest every one ought to
be so disposed as to feel bound to take upon himself
trouble and inconvenience for the sake of Christ. It is
difficult to refuse things which so strongly attract and
charm; it is hard to despise qualities of body and earthly
possessions, in submission to the will and command of
Christ our Lord, but a Christian must be always brave
and strong to endure, if he would pass his time of fife like
a Christian. Have we forgotten what is the body of
which we are members, and who is our Head? He having
joy set before Him endured the cross, and He has given
us His precept to deny ourselves. The very dignity of
human nature depends on this disposition of mind of
which we speak. For, as even the ancient philosophy
often perceived, it is not at all meanness of spirit to rule
oneself and to make the lower part of nature obey the
higher, but it is rather a noble kind of virtue and is mar-
vellously consistent with reason and human dignity.

Besides, to suffer and to bear is the lot of humanity. Man
can no more construct for himself a life free from pain
and replete with every happiness than he can annul the
counsels of his divine Creator, who has willed that the
consequences of our fault should remain in perpetuity*

' St. Aug. De Vera nL 37.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 469

It is proper, therefore, not to look for an end of pain upon
the earth, but to strengthen our mind to bear pain, which,
in fact, educates us to the attainment of the greatest of
all good things for which we hope. For it is not to wealth
and luxur}^, nor to worldly honors and powers that Christ
has promised eternal happiness in heaven, but to patient
suffering and tears, to the desire of justice and to cleanness
of heart.

Hence it is easy to see what ought ultimately to be
expected from the error and pride of those who, despising
the supremacy of the Redeemer, give man the highest
place, and hold that human nature should bear rule every-
where and in every case ; although they can neither attain
such control, nor even define its nature The kingdom
of Jesus Christ obtains its form and virtue from divine
charity; holy and pure affection is its foundation and
completion. The punctual observance of our duties
necessarily follows, viz., not to wrong our neighbor, to
esteem the earthly less than the heavenly, to set the love
of God before all else. But the reign of man, either openly
rejecting Christ or neglecting Him, consists entirely in
the love of self ; charity there is none, and self-immolation
is ignored. Rule, indeed, man may but in Jesus Christ,
and only on the condition that first of all he serves God,
and religiously finds in His law the rule and disciphne of
life.

By the law of Christ we mean not merely the natural
precepts of morality, or what supernatural knowledge
the ancient world acquired, all which Jesus Christ perfected
and raised to the highest plane by His explanation, inter-
pretation, and ratification ; but we mean, besides, all the
doctrine and in particular the institutions He has left us.
Of these the Church is the chief. Indeed, what institu-
tion of Christ is there that she does not fully embrace and
include? By the ministry of the Church, so gloriously
foimded by Him, He willed to perpetuate the office assigned
to Him by His Father, and having on the one hand con-

470 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

ferred upon her all effectual aids for human salvation,
He ordained with the utmost emphasis on the other that
men should be subject to her as to Himself, and zealously
follow her guidance in every department of Ufe: He that
heareth you, heareth Me; and he that despiseth you, despiseth
Me} So the law of Christ is always to be sought from
the Church, and therefore as Christ is for man the way,
so hkewise the Church is the way. He in Himself and
by His proper nature, she by His commission and by a
share in His power. On this account those who would
strive for salvation apart from the Church, wander from
the way and are struggling in vain.

The case of governments is much the same as that of
the individual; they also must run into fatal issues, if they
depart from the way. The Creator and Redeemer of
human nature, the Son of God, is King and Lord of the
world, and holds absolute sovereignty over men, both
as individuals and as members of society. He hath given
to Him power and honor and dominion, and all peoples,
tribes, and languages shall serve Him.^ Yet am I established
King by Him. . . . I will give Thee the nations for Thine
inheritance, and the ends of the earth for Thy possession.^
Therefore, the law of Christ ought to hold sway in human
society, and in communities so far as to be the teacher and
guide of pubUc no less than private life. This being
di^dnely appointed and provided, no one may resist with
impunity, and it fares ill with any commonwealth in
which Christian institutions are not allowed their proper
place. Let Jesus be excluded, and human reason is left
without its greatest protection and illumination; the venk''
notion is easily lost of the end for which God created
human society, to wit: that by help of their civil union
the citizens should attain their natural good, but neverthe-
less in a way not to conflict with that highest and most
perfect and enduring good which is above nature. Their

'Luke X. U\. 'Dan. vii. 14.

^ Ps. ii. 6, 8.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 471

minds busy with a hundred confused projects, rulers and
subjects alike travel a devious road; bereft, as they are,
of safe guidance and fixed principle.

Just as it is pitiable and calamitous to wander out of
the way, so it is to desert the truth. But the first abso-
lute and essential truth is Christ, the Word of God, con-
substantial and co-eternal with the Father, who with
the Father is one. / am the Way and the Truth. Accord-
ingly, if truth is sought, let human reason first of all obey
Jesus Christ and rest secure in His authoritative teaching,
because by Christ's voice the truth itself speaks.

Human intelligence has a wide field of its own in which
to employ itself freely with investigation and experiment.
Nature not only allows this, but evidently requires it.
But it is a w^icked thing and against nature for the mind
to refuse to be confined within its own limitations, to
have no proper modesty, and to scorn the authority of
Christ's teaching. The doctrine, on which our salvation
altogether depends, regards God and divine things. That
was not created by any man's wisdom, but the Son of
God received it in its entirety from His Father. The
words which Thou gavest Me, I have given them} Accord-
ingly, it necessaril) includes much that, without being
contrary to reason, for that cannot possibly be, is still
beyond the reach of our mind as much as is the compre-
hension of God in His essential being. But if there are
60 many things in nature itself which are mysterious and
obscure, and which no human intelligence can explain,
and yet which no one in his senses would presume to doubt,
it will be a perverse freedom of thought not to allow for
things existing outside the domain of nature altogether,
which are above nature, and beyond our minds to fathom.
To refuse to accept dogmas evidently means to do away
with the whole Christian religion. The mind must be
subjected humbly and submissively to the obedience of

^ John xvii. 8.

472 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

Christ, so as to be held, as it were, captive to His will
and sovereignty. Bringing into captivity every under-
standing unto the obedience of Christ} Such is the obedience
which Christ wills, and rightfully, to have offered to Him,
inasmuch as He is God, and has therefore supreme sov-
ereignty over the understanding as well as over the will
of man. There is nothing servile in serving Christ our
Lord with the understanding, but it is especially con-
sonant to reason and to our personal dignity.

For a man does not thus submit his will to the sov-
ereignty of any fellow man, but to that of God the Creator
and First Cause of all, to whom he is made subject by the
law of nature; nor does a man allow himself to be coerced
by the imagination of any human teacher, but by the
eternal and immutable truth. He attains at once the
natural good of the mind and mental freedom. For
truth as proceeding from the authoritative teaching
of Christ, sets in a clear light the intrinsic character and
relative importance of things, whatever they may be,
and thus instructed and obedient to the truth which he
sees, he will not subject himself to creatures, but creatures
to himself, he will not let passion rule reason, but will
make reason rule passion; casting off the pernicious
slavery of sin and error, he will be made free with the best
kind of freedom — You shall know the truth, and the truth
shall make you free} It is plain, therefore, that those
whose minds refuse to acknowledge Christ, are obstinately
striving against God. Having escaped from the divine
subjection, they will not thereby gain greater freedom;
but will come under some human authority; they will
choose, indeed, as men do, some one to listen to, to obey,
and to follow as their master. Besides this, debarring
themselves from theological studies and confining the
exercise of their minds within a more circumscribed sphere,
they will come less efficiently trained to the consideration

* 2 Cor. z. 5. ' John vUL 33.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 473

of subjects with which reason properly deals. There are
many things in nature on the investigation or explanation
of which theology sheds considerable light. And often,
to punish men's pride, God suffers them to miss the truth,
so as to chastise them in the very thing in which they have
sinned. For one or other of these reasons very many
men who seem endowed with great intellectual capacity,
and of profound erudition, have nevertheless in their
investigations of nature fallen into the most absurd and
egregious mistakes.

It is certain, therefore, that in Christianity the under-
standing should be wholly and unreservedly resigned to the
divine authority. If when reason thus submits, our spiritual
pride, which is so strong in us, suffers repression, and feels
pain, that proves all the more that in a Christian there ought
to be patient endurance not merely of the will, but of
the mind as well. And this we wish especially to note for
those who dream of, and openly prefer, some discipline of
thought and action in Christianity, with precepts less rigor-
ous and more indulgent to human nature, that would
demand of us to put up with little or nothing. They
have no notion of the spirit of faith and of Christian
institutions, they do not see that the cross meets us every-
where as the standard of life and the banner under which
we must always fight if we would follow Christ, not in
name only, but in deed and in truth.

God alone is Life. All other beings partake of, but are
not, life. Moreover from all eternity, and by His proper
nature Christ is the Life equally as He is the Truth,
being God of God. From Him, as from its ultimate and
most august beginning, all hfe has flowed down upon the
world and will forever flow; all that is, has its being from
Him; all that lives, lives by Him, for by the Word "all
things were made, and without Him was nothing made
that was made."

So much for the natural life. But above we alluded to
a much better and much more desirable life, won for us

474 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

by the sacrifice of Christ, viz., the hfe of grace, the most
blessed end of which is the hfe of glory, to which all our
thoughts and actions should be referred. The whole
meaning of Christian doctrine and precepts is that we
being dead to sin, should live to justice ^ that is to say, to
virtue and holiness, in which the moral life of the soul
consists with the well-foimded hope of everlasting happi-
ness.

But jastice in its true and proper sense, the justice
which attains to salvation, is fed by Christian faith, and
by that alone. The just man liveth by faith;^ withoui
faith it is impossible to please God} It follows that Jesus
Christ, who is the author and parent and upholder of
faith, maintains and supports our moral hfe chiefly by
the ministry of the Church. To her administration, in
keeping with His benign and most provident purpose,
fle has committed the appropriate means of generating
and preserving the virtue of which We speak, and of
reviving it when dead. The force, then, which generates
and conserves the virtues necessary to salvation disappears
when morality is divorced from divine faith; and, truly,
those who would have morals directed in the path of
virtue by the sole authority of reason, rob man of his
highest dignity, and most perniciously deprive him of his
supernatural life and throw him back on the merely
natural. Not that man is unable to recognize and observe
many natural precepts by the light of reason, but even if
he recognize and observe them all without stumbling for
the whole of his hfe, which without the grace of Our Re-
deemer helping him, he could not do, yet vain would be
his confidence of obtaining eternal salvation if destitute
of faith. // any one abide not in Me, he shall be cast forth
as a branch and shall vnther, and they shall gather him up,
and cast him into the fire, and he bumeth.* He that believeth

» 1 Peter il 24. » Heb. xi. 6.

«Gal. iii. 11. *John xv. 6.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 475

not shall he condemned} How little that kind of virtue
which despises faith avails in the end, and what sort of
fruit it brings forth, we see only too plainly.

Why is it that with so much zeal displayed for estab-
lishing and augmenting the commonwealth, nations still
have to labor and yet in so many and such important
matters fare worse and worse every day? They say indeed
that civil society is self-dependent, that it can go on happily
without the protection of Christian institutions, that by
its own unaided energies it can reach its goal. Hence
they prefer to have public affairs conducted on a secular
basis, so that in civil discipline and public life there are
always fewer and fewer traces discernible of the old
religious spirit. They do not see what they are doing.
Take away the supremacy of God, who judges right
and wrong; and law necessarily loses its paramount
authority, while at the same time justice is undermined,
these two being the strongest and most essential bonds
of social union. In the same way, when the hope and
expectation of immortality are gone, it is only human to
seek greedily after perishable things, and every one will
try, in proportion to his power, to clutch a larger share
of them. Hence spring, jealousies, envies, hatreds; the
most iniquitous plots to overthrow all power and mad
schemes of universal ruin are formed. There is no peace
abroad, nor security at home, and social life is made hideous
by crime.

In such strife of passions, in such impending perils, we
must either look for utter ruin, or some effective remedy
must be found without delay. To restrain evil-doers, to
soften the manners of our populations, to deter them
from committing crimes by legislative intervention, is
right and necessary; but that is by no means all. The
healing of the nations goes deeper; a mightier influence
must be invoked than human endeavor, one that may
touch the conscience and reawaken the sense of duty,

* Mark xvi. 16.

476 CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

the same influence that has once already dehvered from
destruction a world overwhelmed with far greater evils.

Do away with the obstacles to the spirit of Christianity ;
revive and make it strong in the State, and the State will
be recreated. The strife between high and low will at
once be appeased, and each will observe with mutual
respect the rights of the other. If they hsten to Christ,
the prosperous and the unfortunate will both alike remem-
ber their duty; the one will feel that they must keep
justice and charity, if they would be saved, the other
that they must show temperance and moderation. Do-
mestic society will have been soUdly established under
a salutary fear of the divine commands and prohibitions;
and so likewise in society at large, the precepts of the
natural law will prevail, which tells us that it is right to
respect lawful authority, and to obey the laws, to do no
seditious act, nor contrive anything by unlawful associa-
tion. Thus when Christian law exerts its power without
being thwarted in any way, naturally and without effort
the order of society is maintained as constituted by divine
Providence, and prosperity and public safety are secured.
The security of the State demands that we should be
brought back to Him from whom we ought never to have
departed to Him who is the way, the truth, and the life,
not as individuals merely, but as human society througli
all its extent. Christ our Lord must be reinstated as the
Ruler of hiunan society. It belongs to Him, as do all its
members. All the elements of the commonwealth; legal
commands and prohibitions, popular institutions, schools,
marriage, home-life, the workshop, and the palace, all must
be made to come to that fountain and imbibe the Hfe that
comes from Him. No one should fail to see that on this
largely depends the civilization of nations, which is so
eagerly sought, but which is nourished and augmented
not so much by bodily comforts and conveniences, as by
what belongs to the soul, viz., commendable lives and the
cultivation of virtue.

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. 477

Many are estranged from Jesus Chrst rather througli
ignorance than perversity; many study man and the
universe around him with all earnestness, but very few
Btudy the Son of God. Let it be the first endeavor, then, to
dispel ignorance by knowledge, so that He may not be
despised or rejected as unknown. We call upon Chris-
tians everywhere to labor diligently to the utmost of
their power to know their Redeemer. Any one who
regards Him with a sincere and candid mind, will clearly
perceive that nothing can be more salutary than His
law, or more divine than His doctrine. In this, your
authority and co-operation. Venerable Brethren, will
marvellously assist, as will also the zeal and assiduity
of the clergy at large. Think it the chief part of your
duty to engrave in the hearts of your people the true
knowledge, and. We might almost say the image, of
Jesus Christ, and to illustrate in your letters, your dis-
courses, your schools and colleges, your public assembhes,
whenever occasion serves, His charity. His benefits and
institutions. About the "rights of man," as they are
called, the multitude has heard enough; it is time they
should hear of the rights of God. That the present is a
suitable time, is shown by the good impulses of many
which have already, as We have said, been awakened,
and in particular by the many evidences which have
been given of piety towards the Redeemer, a piety which,
if it please God, we shall hand down to the next century
with the promise of a better age. But as the matter in
hand is one in which success can only be looked for through
divine grace, let us with a common impvdse and with
earnest prayers invoke the mercy of Almighty God, that
He would not suffer those to perish whom He has freed
by shedding His blood, that He would graciously regard
this age, which has, indeed, been grievously remiss, but
has suffered much and bitterly, too, in expiation of its
sins ; and that He would, benignantly embracing all peoples
and classes of men, remember the word which He spoke:

478

CHRIST OUR REDEEMER.

If I be lifted up from the earth, I will draw all things to
Myself}

In promise of divine gifts, and in witness of Our paternal
benevolence, Venerable Brethren, We impart to your clergy
and people most lovingly in the Lord Our Apostolic Ben^
diction.

1 John xii. 33.

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

Apostolic Letter Graves de Communi, January IB. 1901.

The grave discussions on economical questions which
for some time past have disturbed the peace of several
countries of the world are growing in frequency and in-
tensity to such a degree that the minds of thoughtful
men are filled, and rightly so, with worry and alarm.
These discussions take their rise in the bad philosophical
and ethical teaching which is now widespread among
the people. The changes also which the mechanical
inventions of the age have introduced, the rapidity of
communication between places and the devices of every
kind for diminishing labor and increasing gain all add
bitterness to the strife; and lastly matter have been
brought to such a pass by the struggle between capital
and labor, fomented as it is by professional agitators,
that the countries where these disturbances most fre-
quently occur, find themselves confronted with ruin and
disaster.

At the very beginning of Our Pontificate We clearly
pointed out what the peril was which confronted society
on this head, and We deemed it Our duty to warn Catholics,
in unmistakable language, how great the error was which
was lurking in the utterances of socialism, and how great
the danger was that threatened not only their temporal
possessions, but also their morality and religion. That
was the purpose of Our Encyclical Letter QiLod Apostolici
Muneris which We published on the 28th of December
in the year 1878; but as these dangers day by day threat-

479

480 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

ened still greater disaster, both to individuals and the
commonwealth, We strove with all the more energy to
avert them. This was the object of Our Encyclical
Rerum Novarum of the 15th May, 1891, in which We
dwelt at length on the rights and duties which both classes
of society — those namely, who control capital, and those
who contribute labor — are bound in relation to each
other; and at the same time. We made it evident that
the remedies which are most useful to protect the cause
of religion, and to terminate the contest between the
different classes of society, were to be found in the pre-
cepts of the Gospel.

Nor, with God's grace, were Our hopes entirely frus-
trated. Even those who are not Catholics, moved by the
power of truth, avowed that the Church must be credited
with a watchful care over all classes of society, and espe-
cially those whom fortune had least favored. CathoUcs
of course profited abundantly by these Letters, for they
not only received encouragement and strength for the
admirable enterprises in which they were engaged but
also obtained the light which they desired, by the help
of which they were able with greater safety and with
more plentiful blessings to continue the efforts which they
had been making in the matter of which We are now speak-
ing. Hence it happened that the differences of opinion
which prevailed among them were either removed or
their acrimony diminished and the discussion laid aside.
In the work which they had undertaken this was effected,
viz»; that in their efforts for the elevation of the poorer
classes, especially in those places where the trouble is
greatest, many new enterprises were set on foot; those
which were already established were increased and all
reaped the blessing of a greater stability imparted to
them. Some of these works were called Bureaus of the
People, their object being to supply information. Rural
savings banks had been established, and various associa-
tions, some for mutual aid, others, of relief were organized.

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 481

There were working men's societies and other enterprises
for work or beneficence. Thus under the auspices of the
Church, united action of CathoHcs was secured as well
as wise discrimination exercised in the distribution of
help for the poor who are often as badly dealt with by
chicanery and exploitation of their necessities, as they
are oppressed by indigence and toil. These schemes of
popular benevolence were, at fi st, distinguished by no
particular appellation. The name of Christian Socialism
with its derivatives which was adopted by some was very
properly allowed to fall into disuse. Afterwards some
asked to have it called The Popular Christian Movement.
In the countries most concerned with this matter, there
are some who are known as Christian Socialists. Else-
where the movement is described as Christian Democracy,
and its partisans Christian Democrats, in contradistinction
to those who are designated as Socialists, and whose
system is known as Social Democracy. Not much ex-
ception is taken to the former, i.e., Christian Socialism,
but many excellent men find the term Christian Democracy
objectionable. They hold it to be very ambiguous and
for this reason open to two objections. It seems by im-
plication to covertly favor popular government, and to
disparage other methods of political administration.
Secondly, it appears to belittle religion by restricting its
scope to the care of the poor, as if the other sections of
society were not of its concern. More than that, under
the shadow of its name, there might easily lurk a design
to attack all legitimate power either civil or sacred. Where-
fore, since this discussion is now so widespread, so exag-
gerated and so bitter, the consciousness of duty warns
Us to put a check on this controversy and to define what
CathoHcs are to think on this matter. We also propose
to describe how the movement may extend its scope and
be made more useful to the commonwealth.

What Social Democracy is and what Christian Democ-
racy ought to be, assuredly no one can doubt. The first,

482 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

with due consideration to the greater or less intemperance
of its utterance, is carried to such an excess by many as to
maintain that there is really nothing existing above the
natural order of things, and that the acquirement and
enjoyment of corporal and external goods constitute
man's happiness. It aims at putting all government in
the hands of the people, reducing all ranks to the same
level, abohshing all distinction of class, and finally in-
troducing community of goods. Hence, the right of
ownership is to be abrogated, and whatever property
a man possesses, or whatever means of livelihood he has,
is to be common to all.

As against this. Christian Democracy, by the fact that
it is Christian, is built, and necessarily so, on the basic
principles of divine faith, and provides for the betterment
of the masses, with the ulterior object of availing itself of
the occasion to fashion their minds for things which are
everlasting. Hence, for Christian Democracy justice is
sacred; it must maintain that the right of acquiring and
possessing property cannot be impugned, and it must
safeguard the various distinctions and degrees which
are indispensable in every well-ordered commonwealth.
Finally it must endeavor to preserve in every human
society the form and the character which God ever im-
presses on it. It is clear, therefore, that there is nothing
in common between Social and Christian Democracy.
They differ from each other as much as the sect of Socialism
differs from the profession of Christianity.

Moreover it would be a crime to distort this name of
Christian Democracy to politics, for although democracy,
both in its philological and philosophical significations,
implies popular government, yet in its present application
it is so to be employed that, removing from it all political
significance, it is to mean nothing else than a benevolent
and Christian movement in behalf of the people. For the
laws of nature and of the Gospel, which by right are superior
to all human contingencies, are necessarily independent

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 483

of all modifications of civil government, while at the same
time they are in concord with everything that is not re-
pugnant to morahty and justice. They are, therefore,
and they must remain absolutely free from pohtical parties,
and have nothing to do with the various changes of ad-
ministration which may occur in a nation; so that Catho-
Mcs may and ought to be citizens according to the con-
stitution of any State, guided as they are by those laws
which command them to love God above all things, and
their neighbors as themselves. This has always been the
discipUne of the Church. The Roman Pontiffs acted upon
this principle, whenever they dealt with different countries,
no matter what might be the character of their govern-
ments. Hence, the mind and the action of Catholics who
are devoted to the ameHoration of the working classes,
can never be actuated with the purpose of favoring and
introducing one government in place of another.

In the same manner, from Christian Democracy, We
must remove another possible subject of reproach, namely:
that while looking after the advantage of the working
people they should act in such a manner as to forget the
upper classes of society; for they also are of the greatest
use in preserving and perfecting the commonwealth.
As We have explained, the Christian law of charity will
prevent Us from so doing. For it extends to all classes of
society, and all should be treated as members of the
same family, as children of the same heavenly Father,
as redeemed by the same Saviour, and called to the same
eternal heritage. Hence the doctrine of the Apostle
who warns us that : "We are one body and one spirit
called to the one hope in our vocation; one Lord, one
Faith and one Baptism; one God and the Father of all
who is above all, and through all, and in us all." Where-
fore on account of the nature of the union which exists
between the different classes of society and which Chris-
tian brotherhood makes still closer, it follows that no
matter how great Our devotion may be in helping the

4S4 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

people, We should all the more keep Our hold upon the
upper classes, because association with them is proper
and necessary, as We shall explain later on, for the happy
issue of the work in which We are engaged.

Let there be no question of fostering under this name
of Christian Democracy any intention of diminishing the
spirit of obedience, or of withdrawing people from their
lawful rulers. Both the natural and the Christian law
command us to revere those who, in their various grades
are above us in the State, and to submit ourselves to
their just commands. It is quite in keeping with our
dignity as men and Christians to obey, not only exteriorly
but from the heart, as the Apostle expresses it, for con-
science, sake, when he commands us to keep our soul sub-
ject to the higher powers. It is abhorrent to the profes-
sion of a Christian for any one to be unwilling to be sub-
ject and obedient to those who rule in the Church, and
first of all to the bishops whom (without prejudice to
the universal power of the Roman Pontiff) the Holy Ghost
has placed to rule the Church of God which Christ has
purchased by His blood} He who thinks or acts otherwise
is guilty of ignoring the grave precept of the Apostle who
bids us to obey our rulers and to be subject to them, for
they watch, having to give an account of our souls. Let
the faithful everywhere implant these principles deep
in their souls, and put them in practice in their daily
life, and let the ministers of the Gospel meditate them
profoundly, and incessantly labor not merely by exhorta-
tion but especially by example to make them enter into
the souls of others.

We have recalled these matters which on other oc-
casions We have made the subject of Our instructions,
in the hope that all dissension about the name of Christian
Democracy will cease and that all suspicion of any danger
coming from what the name signifies will be put at rest.
And with reason do We hope so ; for neglecting the opinions

* Acts XX. 28.

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 485

of certain men, with regard to the power and the efficacy
of this kind of Christian Democracy, which at times are
exaggerated and are not free from error, let no one, how-
•^ver, condemn that zeal which, according to the natural
\nd divine law, has this for its object, viz.: to make the
condition of those who toil more tolerable; to enable
Vhem to obtain, Uttle by little, those means by which they
may provide for the future; to help them to practise in
public and in private the duties which morality and
religion inculcate; to aid them to feel that they are not
animals but men, not heathens but Christians, and so to
enable them to strive more zealously and more eagerly
for the one thing which is necessary, viz.: that ultimate
good for which we are all born into this world. This
is the intention; this is the work of those who wish that
the people should be animated by Christian sentiments
and should be protected from the contamination of social-
ism which threatens them.

We have designedly made mention here of virtue and
religion. For, it is the opinion of some, and the error is
already very common, that the social question is merely
an economic one, whereas in point of fact, it is above all
a moral and religious matter, and for that reason must be
settled by the principles of morality and according to the
dictates of religion. For even though wages are doubled
and the hours of labor are shortened and food is cheapened,
yet if the working man hearkens to the doctrines that
are taught on this subject, as he is prone to do, and is
prompted by the examples set before him to throw off
respect for God and to enter upon a life of immorality,
his labors and his gain will avail him naught.

Trial and experience have made it abundantly clear
that many a workman lives in cramped and miserable
quarters, in spite of his shorter hours and larger wages,
simply because he has cast aside the restraints of morality
and religion. Take away the instinct which Christian
virtue has planted and nurtured in men's hearts, take

486 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY

away prudence, temperance, frugality, patience, and
other correct, natural habits, no matter how much he may
strive, he will never achieve prosperity. That is the
reEison why We have incessantly exhorted Catholics to
enter these associations for bettering the condition of the
laboring classes, and to organize other undertakings
with the same object in view; but We have likewise
warned them that all this should be done under the auspices
of religion, with its help and under its guidance.

The zeal of Catholics on behalf of the masses is especially
noteworthy by the fact that it is engaged in the very
field in which, under the benign inspiration of the Church,
the active industry of charity has always labored, adapting
itself in all cases to the varying exigencies of the times.
For the law of mutual charity perfects, as it were, the law
of justice, not merely by giving each man his due and in
not impeding him in the exercise of his rights, but also by
befriending him in case of need, "not with the word alone,
or the lips, but in deed and in truth"; being mindful of
what Christ so lovingly said to His own: "A new com-
mandment I give unto you, that you love one another
as I have loved you, that you love also one another. By
this shall all men know that you are My disciples, if you
have love one for the other." This zeal in coming to the
rescue of Our fellow men should, of course, be solicitous,
first for the imperishable good of the soul, but it must
not neglect what is necessary and helpful for the body.

We should remember what Christ said to the disciples
of the Baptist who asked him: "Art Thou He that art to
come or look v/e for another?" He invoked, as the
proof of the mission given to Him among men, His exer-
cise of charity, quoting for them the text of Isaias: The
blind see, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf
hear, the dead rise again, the poor have the Gospel preached
to them} And speaking also of the Last Judgment and
of the rewards and punishments He will assign. He de-
'MaU. xi. 5.

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 487

clared that He would take special account of the charity
men exercised towards each other. And in that dis-
course there is one thing that especially excites our sur-
prise, viz. : that Christ omits those works of mercy which
comfort the soul and refers only to external works which,
although done in behalf of men, He regards as being done
to Himself. For I was hungry and you gave Ale to eat;
I was thirsty and you gave Me to drink; I was a stranger
and you took Me in; naked and you covered Me; sick and
you visited Me; I was in prison and you came to Me}

To the teachings which enjoin the twofold charity of
spiritual and corporal works, Christ adds His own ex-
ample so that no one may fail to recognize the importance
which He attaches to it. In the present instance we re-
call the sweet words that came from His paternal heart:
/ have pity on the multitude,^ as well as the desire He had
to assist them even if it were necessary to invoke His
miraculous power. Of His tender compassion we have the
proclamation made in Holy Writ, viz. : that He went aboui
doing good and healing all that were oppressed by the devil. ^
This law of charity which He imposed upon His apostles,
they in the most holy and zealous way put into practice;
and after them those who embraced Christianity origi-
nated that wonderful variety of institutions for alleviating
all the miseries by which mankind is afflicted. And
these institutions carried on and continually increased
their powers of relief and were the especial glories of
Christianity and of the civilization of which it was the
source, so that right-minded men never fail to admire
those foundations, aware as they are of the proneness
of men to concern themselves about their own and neglect
the needs of others.

Nor are we to eliminate from the Hst of good works
the giving of money for charity, in pursuance of what
Christ has said: But yet that which remaineth, give alms.*

* Matt. XXV. 35. ^ Acts x 38.

'Mark vii. 2. 'Luke xi. 41.

488 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

Against tliis, the Socialist cries out and demands its aboli-
tion as injurious to the native dignity of man. But if it
is done in the manner which the Scripture enjoins/ and
in conformity with the true Christian spirit, it neither
connotes pride in the giver nor inflicts shame upon the
one who receives. Far from being dishonorable for man
it draws closer the bonds of human society by augmenting
the force of the obligation of the duties which men are
under with regard to each other. No one is so rich that
he does not need another's help; no one so poor as not
to be useful in some way to his fellow man; and the dis-
position to ask assistance from others with confidence,
and to grant it with kindness is part of our very nature.
Thus justice and charity are so linked with each other,
under the equable and sweet law of Christ, as to form an
admirable cohesive power in hmnan society and to lead
all of its members to exercise a sort of providence in
looking after their own and in seeking the common good
as well.

As regards not merely the temporary aid given to the
laboring classes, but the establishment of permanent in-
stitutions in their behalf, it is most commendable for
charity to undertake them. It will thus see that more
certain and more reliable means of assistance will be
afforded to the necessitous. That kind of help is especially
worthy of recognition which forms the minds of mechanics
and laborers to thrift and foresight so that in course of
time they may be able, in part at least to look out for
themselves. To aim at that is not only to dignify the
duty of the rich towards the poor, but to elevate the poor
themselves; for while it urges them to work for a better
degree of comfort in their manner of living, it preserves
them meantime from danger by checking extravagance
in their desires, and acts as a spur in the practise of the
virtues proper to their state. Since, therefore, this is
of such great avail and so much in keeping with the spirit

»Mfttt vL 2.

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 489

of the times, it is a worthy object for charity to undertake
with all prudence and zeal.

Let it be understood, therefore, that this devotion of
Catholics to comfort and elevate the mass of the people
is in keeping with the spirit of the Church and is most
conformable to the examples which the Church has always
held up for imitation. It matters very little whether
it goes under the name of " The Popular Christian Move-
ment," or *' Christian Democracy," if the instructions
that have been given by Us be fully carried out with the
submission that is due. But it is of the greatest impor-
tance that Catholics should be one in mind, will, and
action in a matter of such great moment. And it is
also of importance that the influence of these under-
takings should be extended by the multipHcation of men
and means devoted to the same object.

Especially must there be appeals to the kindly assist-
ance of those whose rank, worldly wealth, and culture
give them importance in the community. If their help
is excluded, scarcely anything can be done which will be
of any assistance for the wants which now clamor for
satisfaction in this matter of the well-being of the people.
Assuredly the more earnestly many of those who are
prominent in the State conspire effectively to attain that
object the quicker and surer will the end be reached.
We wish them to understand that they are not at all
free to look after or neglect those who happen to be be-
neath them, but that it is a strict duty which binds them.
For no one lives only for his personal advantage in a
community; he hves for the cormnon good as well, so
that when others cannot contribute their share for the
general object, those who can do so are obliged to make
up the deficiency. The very extent of the benefits they
have received increases the burden of their responsibility,
and a stricter account will have to be rendered to God
who bestowed those blessings upon them. What should
also urge all to the fulfilment of their duty in this regard

490 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

is the widespread disaster which vnll eventually fall upon
all classes of society if this assistance does not arrive
in time; and therefore is it that he who neglects the
cause of the distressed poor is not doing his duty to him-
self or to the State.

If this social movement extends its scope far and wide
in a true Christian fashion, and grows in its proper and
genuine spirit, there will be no danger, as is feared, that
those other institutions, which the piety of our ancestors
have established and which are now flourishing, will
decline or be absorbed by new foundations. Both of
them spring from the same root of charity and religion,
and not only do not conflict with each other, but can be
made to coalesce and combine so perfectly as to provide
by a union of their benevolent resources in a more effica-
cious manner against the graver perils and necessities
of the people which confront us to-day.

The condition of things at present proclaims, and pro-
claims vehemently, that there is need for a union of brave
minds with all the resources they can command. The
harvest of misery is before Our eyes, and the dreadful
projects of the most disastrous national upheavals are
threatening Us from the growing power of the socialistic
movement. They have insidiously worked their way
into the very heart of the State, and in the darkness of
their secret gatherings, and in the open light of day,
in their writings and their harangues, they are urging the
masses onward to sedition; they fling aside religious dis-
cipline, they scorn duties and clamor only for rights ; they
are working incessantly on the multitudes of the needy
which daily grow greater, and which, because of their
poverty, are easily deluded and hurried off into ways
that are evil. It is equally the concern of the State and
of religion, and all good men should deem it a sacred
duty to preserve and guard both in the honor which is
their due.

That this most desirable agreement of wills should be

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 491

maintained, it is essential that all refrain from giving any
causes of dissension in hurting and alienating the minds
of others. Hence in newspapers and in speeches to the
people, let them avoid subtle and useless questions which
are neither easy to solve nor to understand except by
minds of unusual ability and only after the most serious
study. It is quite natural for people to think differently
in doubtful questions, but those who address themselves
to these subjects in a proper spirit -vvdll preserve their
mental calm and not forget the respect which is due to
those who differ from them. If minds see things in
another hght it is not necessary to become alienated
forthwith. To whatever opinion a man's judgment
may incline, if the matter is yet open to discussion let
him keep it, provided his mental attitude is such that
he is ready to yield if the Holy See should otherwise
decide.

This Catholic action, of whatever description it may be,
will work with greater effect if all of the various asso-
ciations, while preserving their individual rights, move
together under one primary and directive force.

In Italy We desire that this directive force should
emanate from the CathoHc Congresses and Reunions so
often praised by Us, to further which Our predecessor
and We Ourselves have ordered that these meetings
should be controlled and guided by the bishops of the
country. So let it be for other nations, in case there be
any leading organization of this description to which
this matter has been legitimately entrusted.

Now in all questions of this sort where the interests of
the Church and the Christian people are so closely allied,
it is evident what they who are in the sacred ministry
should do, and it is clear how industrious they should
be in inculcating right doctrine and in teaching the duties
of prudence and charity. To go out and move among
the people, to exert a healthy influence on them by adapt-
ing themselves to the present condition of things is what

492 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

more than once in addressing the clergy We have ad-
vised. More frequently also in writing to the bishops
and other dignitaries of the Church, and especially of
late (to the Minister General of the Minorites, November
25, 1898) We have lauded this affectionate solicitude for
the people and declared it to be the especial duty of both
the secular and regular clergy. But in the fulfilment
of this obhgation let there be the greatest caution and
prudence exerted, and let it be done after the fashion of
the saints. Francis, who was poor and humble, Vincent
of Paul, the Father of the afflicted classes, and very many
others whom the Church keeps ever in her memory, were
wont to lavish their care upon the people, but in such wise
as not to be engrossed overmuch or to be unmindful of
themselves or to let it prevent them from laboring with
the same assiduity in the perfection of their own soul and
the cultivation of virtue.

There remains one thing upon which We desire to insist
very strongly, in which not only the ministers of the
Gospel, but also all those who are devoting themselves
to the cause of the people, can with very httle difficulty
bring about a most commendable result. That is to in-
culcate in the minds of the people, in a brotherly way
and whenever the opportunity presents itself, the follow-
ing principles, viz.: to keep aloof on all occasions from
seditious acts and seditious men; to guard inviolate the
rights of others; to show a proper respect to superiors;
to willingly perform the work in which they are employed ;
not to grow weary of the restraint of family hfe which
in many ways is so advantageous; to keep to their re-
ligious practices above all, and in their hardships and
trials to have recourse to the Church for consolation.
In the furtherance of all this, it is very efficacious to
propose the splendid example of the Holy Family of
Nazareth, and to advise the invocation of its protection,
and it also helps to remind the people of the examples of
sanctity which have shone in the midst of poverty, and

CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY. 493

to hold up before them the reward that awaits them in
the better life to come.

Finally, We recur again to what We have already de-
clared and We insist upon it most solemnly, viz.: that
whatever projects individuals or associations form in
this matter should be done with due regard to Episcopal
authority and absolutely under Episcopal guidance.
Let them not be led astray by an excessive zeal in the
cause of charity. If it leads them to be wanting in
proper submission it is not a sincere zeal ; it will not have
any useful result and cannot be acceptable to God. God
deUghts in the souls of those who put aside their own
designs and obey the rulers of His Church as if they were
obeying Him; He assists them even when they attempt
difficult things and benignly leads them to their desired
end. Let them show also examples of virtue, so as to
prove that a Christian is a hater of idleness and indulgence,
that he gives willingly from his goods for the help of
others, and that he stands firm and unconquered in the
midst of adversity. Examples of that kind have a power
of moving people to dispositions of soul that make for
salvation, and have all the greater force as the condition
of those who give them is higher in the social scale.

We exhort you, Venerable Brethren, to provide for all
this, as the necessities of men and of places may require,
according to your prudence and your zeal, meeting as
usual in council to combine with each other in your plans
for the furtherance of these projects. Let your solicitude
watch and let your authority be effective in controlhng,
compelling, and also in preventing, lest any one under
the pretext of good should cause the vigor of sacred dis-
cipline to be relaxed or the order which Christ has es-
tablished in His Church to be disturbed. Thus by the
correct, concurrent, and ever-increasing labor of all Cath-
olics, the truth will flash out more brilliantly than ever,
viz.: that truth and true prosperity flourish especially
among those peoples whom the Church controls and

494 CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY.

influences: and that she holds it as her sacred duty to
admonish every one of what the law of God enjoins to
unite the rich and the poor in the bonds of fraternal
charity, and to lift up and strengthen men's souls in the
times when adversity presses heavily upon them.

Let Our commands and Our wishes be confirmed by
the words which are so full of apostoUc charity which
the blessed Paul addressed to the Romans: "I beseech
you therefore brethren, be reformed in the newness of
your mind; he that giveth, with simplicity; he that
ruleth, with carefulness; he that showeth mercy with
cheerfulness. Let love be without dissimulation — ^hating
that which is evil; clinging to that which is good; loving
one another with the charity of brotherhood; with honor
preventing one another; in carefulness, not slothful;
rejoicing in hope; patient in tribulation; instant in
prayer. Communicating to the necessities of the saints.
Pursuing hospitality. Rejoice with them that rejoice;
weep with them that weep; being of one mind to one
another; to no man rendering evil for evil; providing
good things not only in the sight of God but also in the
sight of men."

As a pledge of these benefits receive the Apostolic
Benediction which. Venerable Brethren, We grant most
lovingly in the Lord to you and your clergy and people.

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

I. Letter from the Pope to the Archbishop of Paris, December
23, 1900.

Amid the consolations afforded Us during the Holy
Year by the pious eagerness of the pilgrims who have
flocked to Rome from all parts of the world, We have
been struck with sadness at the news of the dangers which
threaten the religious congregations in France. By
dint of misunderstanding and prejudice it has come to
be thought that it will be necessary for the good of the
State to put restraints upon their liberty, and perhaps
to proceed against them with even greater rigor. The
duty of Our supreme ministry, and the deep affection which
We bear for France, lead Us to address you on this grave
and important subject in the hope that, on being better
enlightened, upright and fair-minded men will hark back
to more equitable counsels. And in addressing you We
address also Our Venerable Brethren — your colleagues
in the French episcopate.

In the name of the heavy cares which you share with
Us it is for you to dissipate the prejudice which exists
among your countrymen, and to prevent, as far as possible,
any irreparable misfortunes befalling the Church and
France.

ORIGIN AND OBJECT.

The religious orders, as every one knows, have their
origin and the reason of their existence in those sublime
evangelical counsels which Our divine Redeemer gave
to those who, in every succeeding age, would attain tCi

496

496 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

Christian perfection — to those brave and generous souls
who by prayer and contemplation, by pious austerities
and the observance of certain rules, endeavor to cUrab
to the highest summits of the spiritual life. Bom and
cradled under the action of the Church, whose authority
gives sanction to their government and administration,
the religious orders form a chosen portion of the flock of
Jesus Christ. They are, according to the expression of
St. Chrysostom, "the honor and ornament of spiritual
grace," whilst, at the same time, they are witnesses to
the sacred fecundity of the Church.

Their vows, made freely and spontaneously, after
ripening in the meditations of the novitiate, have ever
been regarded and respected by people in every age as
sacred things and the sources of the rarest virtue. Their
object is twofold: first, the raising of those who take
them to a higher degree of perfection; and secondly,
by purifying and strengthening their souls, to prepare
them for a ministry which is exercised for the everlasting
salvation of their neighbor and for the alleviation of the
numberless miseries of humanity. Thus, working under
the supreme direction of the Apostolic See for the realiza-
tion of the ideal of perfection traced by Our Lord, and
living under rules which have nothing in contradiction
of any form of civil government, the religious congrega-
tions co-operate on a large scale in the mission of the
Church, which consists essentially in the sanctification of
souls and in doing good to men.

This is why wherever the Church is in possession of her
liberty, wherever the natural right of a citizen to choose
the sort of life he considers best suited to his taste and
his moral advancement is respected, there, too, the re-
ligious orders have arisen as a spontaneous product of
Catholic soil, and the bishops have rightly regarded them
as valuable auxiUaries in the sacred ministry and in works
of Christian charity.

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 497

SERVICES TO CIVIL SOCIETY.

But it is not to the Church alone that the religious orders
have from their first appearance rendered immense ser-
vices: they have benefited also civil society itself. They
have had the merit of preaching virtue to the multitude
by the apostolate of good example, as well as by that of
word of mouth, of forming and adorning men's minds by
the teaching of sacred and profane knowledge, and of
enlarging the heritage of the fine arts by splendid works
that will live.

Whilst their doctors shed renown on the universities
by the depth and breadth of their learning, and their
houses became the refuge of divine and human knowl-
edge, and in the shipwreck of civiHzation saved from
certain destruction the masterpieces of ancient wisdom,
other religious have penetrated inhospitable regions,
swamps or tangled forests, and there, braving every
danger in draining and clearing and cultivating the land
by the sweat of their brow, they founded round their
monasteries and beneath the shadow of the cross centres
of population which grew into villages and flourishing
towns, whence, under a kindly rule, agriculture and
industry began to spread abroad.

When the small number of priests or the needs of the
day demanded it, legions of apostles, eminent for their
piety and learning, were seen issuing forth from the
cloisters, who, by their valiant co-operation with the
bishops, exerted the happiest influence on society, by
putting an end to feuds, stifling enmity, bringing people
back to the thought of duty, and by setting up again in
honor the principles of rehgion and Christian civilization.

Such, briefly indicated, are the merits of the religious
orders in the past. They have been registered by the
hand of impartial history, and it is superfluous to dwell
on them at any greater length. Nor is their activity.

498 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

their zeal, or their love of their fellow men diminished
in our own day. The good that they do strikes every eye,
and their virtues shine with a brilliance which no accusa-
tion, no attack, can tarnish.

In this noble arena in which the rehgious congregations
vie with each other in beneficent activity, those of France,
We say it again with joy, occupy a foremost and honorable
place. Some devoted to teaching instruct the young in
secular knowledge and the principles of religious virtue
and duty, upon which pubhc peace and the weKare of
States absolutely depend. Others, consecrated to various
works of charity, afford effective aid to every physical
and moral misery in the numberless houses wherein they
tend the sick, the infirm and the aged, the orphan, the
deranged, and the incurable, without allowing the danger
or unpleasantness of their work or the ingratitude they
may meet with to dampen their courage or check their
ardor. These meritorious services, recognized again and
again by men above any suspicion of favoritism, and
time after time, rewarded by public honors, make these
congregations the glory of the Church at large, and the
particular and shining glory of France, which they have
ever nobly served, and which they love, as We have many
times seen, with a patriotism that feared not to face death
itself with joy.

The disappearance of these champions of Christian
charity would, it is evident, bring on the country an ir-
reparable loss. By the drying up of such an abundant
source of voluntary aid, public misery would be notably
increased and, at the same time, an eloquent preaching
of brotherhood and concord would be silenced. A society
in which so many elements of trouble and enmity are
fermenting needs assuredly great examples of self-sacri-
fice, love, and disinterestedness. And what is better
fitted to raise and pacify men's minds than the sight of
these men and woman, who, giving up a happy, distin-
guished and, oftentimes, an illustrious position, volun*

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 499

tarily make themselves the brothers and sisters of the
children of the people, practising in their regard true
equality by utterly devoting themselves to the disin-
herited, the abandoned, and the suffering?

So admirable is the activity of the French congrega-
tions that it could not be kept within the frontiers of
the country, but has gone forth to carry the Gospel to
the ends of the earth, and with the Gospel the name, the
language, and the prestige of France. Exiles of their
own free will, the French missionaries go out across stormy
sea and sandy desert seeking to gain souls for Christ
in the most distant and often unexplored regions. They
are seen settling amongst savage tribes in order to civihze
them by teaching the elements of Christianity, the love
of God and their neighbors, work, regard for the weak,
and cleanly living; and they devote themselves to this
without looking for any earthly reward even till death,
which is often hastened by fatigue, the difficulties of the
Church, or the sword of the executioner. Respecting
the laws and submissive to the civil authorities, they
bring with them, wherever they come, civiHzation and
peace; their only ambition is to enhghten the less fortu-
nate people to whom they devote themselves, and to lead
them to Christian morality, and to a knowledge of their
dignity as men. Nor is it an uncommon thing for them
to make important contribution to science by the help
they give to the researches which are being made in such
different domains, as the study of the differences of race
and tongue, of history, the nature and products of the
soil, and other questions.

It is, moreover, precisely upon the laborious, patient,
and tireless action of these admirable missionaries that
the Protectorate of France is founded, which government
after government has always been jealous to preserve,
and which We Ourselves have publicly acknowledged.
The inviolable attachment of the French missionaries
to their country, the eminent services which they render

500 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

her, the great influence which they secure for her especially
in the East, all these are facts recognized by men of the
most varied opinions, and only lately solemnly proclaimed
by the voice of the highest authority.

Under these circumstances, to deprive the religious
congregations at home of the freedom and peace which
alone can ensure the recruiting of their members and the
long and laborious task of their training would not only
be to requite so many great services with inexpHcable
ingratitude, but would also, at the same time, be a clear
renunciation of the benefits that flow from them. Other
nations have already had sorry experience of such a policy.
After having checked the expansion of the religious congre-
gations at home, and so gradually dried up their seed
they have seen their own influence and prestige abroad
proportionally dechne; for it is useless to seek fruit of a
tree from which you lop the branches.

It is easy to see that all the great interests at stake in
this question would be seriously compromised, even if the
missionary orders were spared that the others might be
struck, for careful consideration shows that the existence
and action of the one are bound up with the existence
and action of the others. As a matter of fact the vocation
of the missionary religious germinates and develops under
the word of the preacher religious, under the pious direction
of the teaching religious and even under the supernatural
influence of the contemplative religious. One can im-
agine, too, the difficult situation in which the mission-
aries would be placed, and the dechne of their authority
and prestige which would follow on the people whom
they are seeking to evangelize, learning that the religious
congregations, far from meeting with protection and
respect in their own country, were there treated with
hostility and harshness.

But, looking at the question from a higher standpoint,
we may point out that the religious congregations, as We
have already said, represent the public practice of Chris-

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 501

tian perfection; and, if it be certain that there are in the
Church, and always will be, elect souls aspiring to it
under the influence of grace, it would be unjust to hinder
their designs. It would, moreover, be an assault on the
liberty of the Church which is in France guaranteed by
a solenm treaty, for everything that hinders her from
leading souls to perfection injures the free exercise of her
divine mission.

To strike at the religious orders would be to deprive
the Church of devoted co-operators: at home where they
are the necessary auxiliaries of the bishops and clergy
in the exercise of the sacred ministrj'^ and the function of
Catholic teach ng and preaching which the Church has
the right and the duty of dispensing, and which is de-
manded by the conscience of the faithful; and abroad
where the general interests of the apostolate and its
chief power in all parts of the world are for the greater
part represented by the French congregations. The
blow which struck them would be felt everywhere, and
the Holy See, bound by a divine command to provide
for the spread of the Gospel, would find itself under the
necessity of offering no opposition to the occupation of
the vacancies left by French missionaries by the mission-
aries of other nations.

Lastly, We should point out that to strike the religious
congregations would be to forsake to one's own undoing
those democratic principles of liberty and equality which
form the very foundation of constitutional right in France
and guarantee the individual and collective liberty of
every citizen so long as his actions and manner of living
have an honest aim which in no way injures the rights
and legitimate interests of any one.

Now, in a State of such advanced civilization as that
of France, We refuse to think that there is neither protec-
tion nor respect for a class of citizens who are honest,
peaceable, and devoted to their country, who, possessing
all the rights and fulfilling all the duties of their fellow

502 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

countrymen, have, either in the vows they make or the
life they lead, no other end in view but to work for the
perfection of their own souls and the good of their neigh-
bor. They only ask for liberty, and the measures taken
against them would appear to be all the more unjust and
odious since societies of quite another sort receive at the
same time a treatment altogether different.

Of course We are not unaware that as a justification
for these rigors there are people who go about declaring
that the religious congregations encroach upon the juris-
diction of the bishops and interfere with the rights of
the secular clergy. This assertion cannot be sustained
if one cares to consult the wise laws published on this
point by the Church, and which We have recently re-
enacted. In perfect harmony with the decrees and spirit
of the Council of Trent they regulate on the one hand
the conditions of existence of persons vowed to the prac-
tise of the evangelical counsels and to the apostolate,
and on the other they respect as far as is necessary the
authority of the bishops in their respective dioceses.
Whilst they safeguard the dependence due to the head of
the Church, they also in a majority of cases give to the
bishop supreme authority over the congregations by
way of delegation apostolic. As for the attempt to
make out that the episcopate and clergy of France are
disposed to give a favorable welcome to the ostracism
with which it is desired to strike the religious orders, it is
an insult which the bishops and priests can only repel
with all the energy of their priestly soul.

There is no need to give any more importance to the
other reproach that is made against the congregations,
of being too rich. Even if we admit that the value set
upon their property is not exaggerated there is no con-
testing that they are in honorable and legal possession,
and consequentl}'^ to despoil them would be an attack
upon the rights of property. It is, moreover, necessary
to remark that they possess nothing for their personal

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 503

interest or for the good of their individual members, but
for works of rehgion, charity, and beneficence, which
turn to the profit of the French nation at home and abroad,
whither they go to increase its prestige by contributing
to the mission of civilization which Providence has en-
trusted to it.

Passing over in silence other considerations which
are made on the subject of the religious congregations,
We confine Ourselves to this important remark: France
maintains amicable relations with the Holy See founded
upon a solemn treaty. If then, the inconveniences in-
dicated have upon given points any reality the way is
open to bring them to the notice of the Holy See, which
is ready to make them the subject of a serious investiga-
tion, and if need be to appty suitable remedies. We
desire, however, to reckon upon the equitable impartiality
of the men who guide the destinies of France and upon
the fairmindedness and good sense which distinguish the
French people. We feel confident that they will not wish
to lose the precious moral and social heritage of which
the religious congregations are the representatives; that
they have no desire, in seeking to secure general Hberty
])y laws of exception, to wound the feelings of Catholics,
and to aggravate to its own great detriment their country's
internal discords. A nation is truly great and strong,
and can regard the future with any assurance of security,
only if its people are closely united in working for the
common good in full regard for the rights of all, and vidth
consciences free and undisturbed. From the beginning
of Our Pontificate We have never omitted to make any
effort to further this work of pacification in France which
would have brought her incalculable benefits, not only in
the religious, but also in the civil and political order.
Undeterred by any difficulties. We have not ceased to
give France particular proofs of Our respect, solicitude,
and affection, always feeling sure that she would respond
to them as a great and generous nation should.

504 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

We should be overwhelmed with the deepest sorrow if,
in the evening of Our days, We should discover that We
had been deceived in these hopes, deprived of the price
of Our fatherly solicitude, and condemned to watch in
the country which We love a rancorous struggle between
party passions, with no power to know how far their
excesses would extend or to ward off the misfortunes
which We have done all We could to prevent, and for
which We decline, in advance, to be held in any way
responsible.

In any case the duty which is at present incumbent
on the French bishops is to labor in perfect harmony
of thought and action to prevail upon the people to save
the rights and interests of the religious congregations,
which We love with all Our fatherly heart, and whose
existence, liberty, and prosperity concern the Catholic
Church, France, and humanity.

May the Lord vouchsafe to hear Our ardent prayers
and to grant success to the efforts which We have now for
so long made in this noble cause. And as a token of
Our benevolence and of divine favors We grant you, dear
Son, and to the whole episcopate, clergy, and people of
France, the Apostolic Benediction.

II. Letter of His Holiness Leo XIII. , June 29, 1901, to the Superion
of the Religious Orders and Institutes in France.

At all times the religious families have received from
the Apostolic See particular assurance of loving and
considerate solicitude, whether they were in the enjoy-
ment of the benefits of peace, or, as in our days, under-
going such trials as those which now assail them. The
onslaught which, in certain countries, has been recently
made against the orders and the institutes subject to
your authority, cause Us the profoundest grief, and
holy Church is bowed down in sorrow because of it, for it

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 505

feels itself cut to the quick in its own inherent rights, and
seriously impeded in the fulfilment of its work which, for
its proper exercise, requires the concurrence of both
clergies, secular and religious. In truth, who touches
its priests touches the apple of its eye. For Our part,
you know that We have endeavored, by all the means in
Our power, to prevent this unworthy persecution, and
have striven to avert from those countries the consequent
disasters which will be as great as they are undeserved.
Hence it is that on many occasions, in the name of religion,
of justice, and of civiUzation, We have pleaded your cause
with all the power at Our command; but We have hoped
in vain that Our remonstrances would be listened to;
for, lo! a nation which was singularly fruitful in religious
vocations, a nation on which We have always bestowed
the greatest consideration, has, by the authority of its
government, approved and promulgated these unjust
and discriminating laws, against which, a few months ago,
We had lifted Our voice in the hope of preventing their
being put upon the statutes.

Remembering Our sacred duties, and following the
example of Our illustrious predecessors. We have put
the seal of condemnation on these laws as being con-
trary to that natural and evangelical right which is con-
ferred by constant tradition; the right, namely, to form
associations for the purpose of leading lives which are not
only honest in themselves but marked by exalted sanctity:
We have condemned them because they are contrary
to that unquestionable right which the Church possesses
of founding religious institutions exclusively subject to
its authority to aid it in the accomplishment of its divine
mission; especially when, in this instance, the exercise
of that right has resulted in the greatest benefits in the
religious and civil order and redounded to the advantage
of that noble nation itself.

And now We feel moved to open to you Our paternal
heart in the desire to give you, and to receive from you

506 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

some holy consolation and, at the same time, to address
to you the advice which the occasion calls for, in order
that remaining still more firm in the time of trial you
will gain greater merit in the sight of God and men.

Among the many motives of courage which spring from
our faith, recall, dear Sons, that solemn word of Jesus
Christ: Blessed are ye when they shall revile and persecute
you, and speak all that is evil against you untruly for My
sake} Reproaches, calumnies, vexations of all kinds
will be poured out upon you for My sake, but then shall
you be blessed. It is in vain to multiply against you
those calumnious accusations which seek to dishonor you.
The sad reality is flashed only the more vividly on men's
eyes, that the true reason for wliich you are persecuted
is that deep-seated hatred which the world cherishes
against the Cathohc Church, the City of God; that the
real intention is, if possible, to nullify in society the re-
parative action of Jesus Christ from which such beneficent
and salutary results universally flow. No one is ignorant
of the fact that the religious of both sexes form a chosen
body in the Gty of God; that they represent particularly
the spirit and the mortifications of Jesus Christ; that by
the practice of the EvangeHcal Counsels they tend to
carry Christian \'irtue to the summit of perfection and
that, in a multitude of ways, they powerfully second the
action of the Church. Hence it is not astonishing that
to-day, as in other times, under other iniquitous forms,
the City of the World rises against them, and chiefly those
men who, by a sacrilegious compact, are most intimately
united and most servilely bound to him who is Prince of
this world.

It is clear that they consider the dissolution and ex-
tinction of religious orders as a successful manoeu\Te
in the furthering of their deep-laid designs of driving the
Catholic nations into the ways of apostasy and aliena-
tion from Jesus Christ, and because of that, We may say

»Matt. V 11.

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 507

in all truth: Blessed are you because you are hated and
■persecuted. It is only because you have chosen your
kind of life out of love for Jesus Christ.

If you followed the maxims and the ways of the world,
the world would not trouble you, but would shower its
favors upon you. "7/ you had been of the world, the world
would love its own"; but because you are walking in oppo-
site ways you are assailed and warred against. It is
because the world hates you. Christ Himself foretold
it. Hence He regards you with all the more love and
predilection as He sees you more like Himself in your
suffering for justice' sake. But if you partake of the
suffering of Christ, rejoice. Aspire to the courage of
those heroes who went from the presence of the Council
rejoicing that they were accounted worthy to suffer reproach
for the name of Jesus} To this glory which comes from
the testimony of your conscience, there is added, tiioiigh
you do not seek it, the blessing of all honest men. AH
those who have at heart the peace and prosperity of their
country are aware that there are no more honorable
citizens, no more useful men, no more devoted patriots
than the members of religious congregations, and they
tremble at the thought of losing in you so many precious
advantages which depend upon your existence. There
are the throngs of the poor, the abandoned and the un-
fortunate for whose sake 3^ou have founded and sustained
every variety of establishment with supreme intelligence
and admirable charity. There are the fathers of families
who have entrusted their sons to you, and who, until the
present moment, relied upon you to impart that moral
and religious education which is strong, vigorous, and fruit-
ful in solid virtue, and which was never more needed than
in our time. There are the priests who find in you valu-
able auxiliaries in their important and laborious ministry.
There are the men of all ranks who, in these times of
apostasy, find useful direction and encouragement in

^ Acts V. 41.

508 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

your advice, backed as it is by the integrity of your lives.
There are, above all, the bishops who honor you with
their confidence, and who consider you as tried teachers
of their younger clergy, and who recognize in you the
true friends of their brothers and their people, offering as
you do for them to the divine mercy your incessant prayers
and expiatory sacrifices.

But no one appreciates the exceptional merits of re-
ligious orders with greater justice than We Ourselvea
who, from this Apostolic See, are watching over the needs
of the universal Church.

Already, in other acts, We have made particular men-
tion of all this. Let it suffice now, to call attention ta
that splendid ardor with, which these religious bodies
follow, not only the directions, but the least expression
of wish of the Vicar of Jesus Christ; undertaking every
work which may contribute to the advantage of the
Church and society whenever He indicates it; hurrying
to the most inhospitable shores; braving every suffering
and accepting death itself, as many have done in the
most glorious manner in the recent upheavals of the
empire of China.

If, among the dearest remembrances of Our long Pontifi-
cate, We count the fact that by Our authority We have
raised a great number of the servants of God to the honors
of the altar, those remembrances are all the more dear
to Us because the majority of those saints belong to
religious orders, either as founders or as simple reUgious.

We, moreover, wish to recall for your consolation,
that among people of the world, distinguished by their
position, and by their knowledge of what society needs
there have not been lacking many honorable and up-
right men who have come forward to praise your works,
to defend your inviolable right as citizens, and your
still more inviolable liberty as Catholics. Surely, one
must be blinded by passion not to see that it is unwise
and dishonorable to crush those who, hoping for nothing

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 509

and asking for nothing, give themselves up entirely to
the service of their fellow men. Let it be considered
with what zeal these religious apply themselves to de-
velop among the children of the people those germs of
natural goodness which, without them, would perish and
leave these httle ones to grow up a danger to themselves
and to others. These rehgious have, with the help of
grace, cultivated patiently and assiduously these precious
seeds, have preserved them from destruction and have
succeeded in bringing them to maturity. Under their
influence they developed a splendid fruitage of intelligent
love for truth, of honesty, a sense of duty, of strength,
of character, and of generosity in sacrifice. And what is
there better calculated than all this for the order and
prosperity of the State? Nevertheless, dear Sons, since the
hatred of the world pursues you so far as to pretend that it
is a useful and praiseworthy work to trample under foot in
your persons the most sacred rights and that in so doing,
a service is done to God, adore with a trusting humility
the designs of the Almighty in permitting this. If, at
times. He suffers right to succumb to violence He does
so only for the purpose of some greater good ; but remem-
ber that He often comes to Our rescue in unforseen ways
when We suffer for Him and trust in Him.

If He places obstacles and obstructions in the path of
those whose state is that of Christian perfection, it is in
order to test and fortify their virtue, and it is, more par-
ticularly, to strengthen and reinvigorate their souls which
might else have grown feeble in protracted peace.

Endeavor, therefore, to correspond to those paternal
designs of Almighty God. Give yourselves up with
redoubled ardor to a life of prayer and faith and holy
works; make regular discipline reign among you; let a
brotherly union of hearts prevail among you, with humble
and eager obedience, austerity and detachment and a
pious ardor for the glory of God. Let your thoughts
be always high^ your resolutions generous and your zeal

510 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

indefatigable for the glory of God and the extension of
His kingdom. Since by the misfortune of the times,
you find yourselves either already struck or threatened
by the fatal laws of dispersion you must recognize that
these very circumstances impose upon you the duty of
defending with more zeal than ever the integrity of
your religious spirit against the contamination of the
world and of holding yourselves ever ready and ever
armed against all attacks.

On this point you will recall the different instructions
which have been addressed to Regulars by the Apostolic
See, and these other prescriptions which have emanated
from your own superiors. Let both one and the other
keep their full vigor and be most conscientiously observed.
And now, religious of every age, young and old, lift your
eyes to your illustrious founders. Their maxims speak
to you, their statutes guide you; their examples are before
your eyes. Let your sweetest and holiest desires be to
hear them, to follow them, to imitate them. It is thus
that multitudes of your ancestors have acted in times of
trial; it is thus they have transmitted to you a rich
heritage of sublime courage and virtue. Long to make
yourselves worthy of your sires and of your brethren in
order that you may be able, all of you, to say, while justly
glorifying yourselves, We are the sons and brothers of the
saints. It is thus that you will obtain the greatest ad-
vantage for yourselves, for the Church, and for society.
By spurring yourselves onward to reach that degree of
sanctity to which God has called you, you will fulfil the
designs of Providence in your regard and you will merit
the abundant recompense which He has promised you.
The Church — ^your tender mother — who has heaped
favors upon you, will obtain, in return for it all, a more
faithful and more efficacious cooperation than ever in
its mission of peace and salvation. Peace and salvation;
they are the two urgent needs of society at the present
time, which so many causes tend to corrupt and degrade.

THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE. 511

To arouse it and to bring it repentant to the feet of the
merciful Saviour we must have men of superior virtue,
of living eloquence, of apostolic hearts and men who
possess, at the same time, the power of drawing abun-
dant graces from heaven. You will be such men, We doubt
not, and you will thus become the most opportune and
the most glorious benefactors of society.

Dear sons, the charity of the Lord inspires a last word
to strengthen in you the sentiments with which you are
animated towards those who attack your institutes and
who wish to destroy your liberty. Just as your con-
science prompts you to keep a firm and dignified attitude,
so by your profession, you must always show yourselves
sweet and indulgent ; because it is especially in the rehgious
that the perfection of that true charity should be resplen-
dent, revealing itself, as always open to pity, and ever
incapable of harboring hate. Without doubt, to see
yourselves rewarded with ingratitude and thrust aside
by those you have benefited would naturally cause bitter-
ness of heart; but, dear Sons, let your faith, and what it
tells you give you comfort. Bear in mind the sublime
exhortation, Overcome evil by good. That faith places
before your eyes the incomparable magnanimity of the
Apostle. We are reviled and we bless; we are persecuted
and we suffer it; we are blasphemed and we entreat.^ Above
all, it invites you to repeat the supplication of the supreme
benefactor of the human race, Jesus Christ, suspended
on His cross: Father, forgive them. Therefore, dear Sons,
strengthen yourselves in the Lord. You have with you
the Vicar of Jesus Christ; you have with you the whole
Catholic world, which regards you with affection, respect,
and gratitude. Your glorious founders and your glorious
brothers encourage you. Your Sovereign Chief, Jesus
Christ, girds you with His strength and covers you with
the mantle of His virtue.

Well-beloved Sons, turn to the divine Heart with a

» 1 Cor. iv. 12, 13.

512 THE RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS IN FRANCE.

fervent confidence, and fervent prayers. You will j&nd
there all the strength necessary to conquer the fear of
the world. There is one word which rings through the
centuries, always Hving and always full of consolation.
Have confidence, I have conquered the world.

May you find, besides, some consolation in Our blessing
which on this day, consecrated to the triumphant memory
of the apostles, We are happy to accord you in all its
plenitude; to each one of you, to all of you, and to each
one of your families who are most true to Us in the Lord.

CONGRATULATIONS TO THE AMERICAN
HIERARCHY.

Pope Leo's Letter Addressed to Cardinal Gibbons and the
American Bishops, April 15, 1902.

Certainly We have reason to rejoice, and the Catholic
world, on account of its reverence for the Apostolic See,
has reason to rejoice at the extraordinary fact that We
are to be reckoned as the third in the long line of Roman
Pontiffs to whom it has been happily given to enter upon
the twenty-fifth year of the Supreme Priesthood. But
in this circle of congratulations, while the voices of all
are welcome to Us, that of the Bishops and faithful of the
United States of North America brings Us special joy,
both on account of the conditions which give your country
prominence over many others, and of the special love
we entertain for you.

You have been pleased, beloved Son and Venerable
Brothers, in your joint letter to Us to mention in detail
what, prompted by love for you, We have done for your
churches during the course of Our Pontificate. We, on
the other hand, are glad to call to mind the many different
ways in which you have ministered to Our consolation
throughout this period. If We found pleasure in the
state of things which prevailed among you when We
first entered upon the charge of the Supreme Apostolate,
now that We have advanced beyond twenty-four years
in the same charge. We are constrained to confess that Our
first pleasure has never been diminished, but, on the

513

514 TO THE AMERICAN HIERARCHY.

contrary, has increased from day to day by reason of
the increase of Catholicity among you. The cause of this
increase, although first of all to be attributed to the provi-
dence of God, must also be ascribed to your energy and
activity. You have, in your prudent poUcy, promoted
every kind of Catholic organization with such wisdom
as to provide for all necessities and all contingencies,
in harmony with the remarkable character of the people
of your country.

Your chief praise is that you have promoted and sedu-
lously continue to foster the union of your churches with
this chief of churches and with the Vicar of Christ on
earth. Herein, as you rightly confess, is the apex and
centre of government, of teaching and of the priesthood;
the source of that unity which Christ destined for His
Church, and which is one of the most striking notes dis-
tinguishing it from all human sects. As We have never
failed to exercise v/ith advantage this most salutary ofiice
of teaching and government in every nation, so We
have never permitted that you or your people should suffer
the lack of it. For We have gladly availed Ourselves of
every opportunity to testify the constancy of Our solici-
tude for you and for the interests of religion among you.
And Our daily experience obliges Us to confess that We
have found your people, through your influence, endowed
with perfect docility of mind and alacrity of disposition.
Therefore, while the changes and tendencies of nearly
all the nations which were Catholic for many centuries
give cause for sorrow, the state of your churches, in their
flourishing youthfulness, cheers Our heart and fills it with
delight. True, you are shown no special favor by the
law of the land, but on the other hand your lawgivers
are certainly entitled to praise for the fact that they do
nothing to restrain you in your just liberty. You must,
therefore, and with you the Catholic host behind, make
strenuous use of the favorable time for action which is now
at your disposal by spreading abroad as far as possible

TO THE AMERICAN HIERARCHY. 515

the light of truth against the errors and absurd imaginings
of the sects that are springing up.

We are not unaware, Venerable Brothers, of all that
has been done by every one of you for the estabUshment
and the success of schools and academies for the proper
education of children. By your zeal in this respect you
have clearly acted in conformity with the exhortations
of the Apostolic See and the prescriptions of the Council
of Baltimore. Your magnificent work on behalf of the
ecclesiastical seminaries has assuredly been calculated
to increase the prospects of good to be done by the clergy
and to add to their dignity. Nor is this all. You have
wisely taken measures to enlighten dissidents and to draw
them to the truth by appointing learned and worthy
members of the clergy to go about from district to dis-
trict to address them in public in f amihar style in churches
and other buildings, and to solve the difficulties that may
be advanced. An excellent plan, and one which We know
has already borne abundant fruit. Nor has your charity
been unmindful of the sad lot of the negro and the Indian —
you have sent them teachers, helped them liberally, and
you are most zealously providing for their eternal salva-
tion. We are glad to add a stimulus, if such be neces-
sary, to enable you to continue these undertakings with
full confidence that your work is worthy of commenda-
tion.

Finally, not to omit the expression of Our gratitude,
We would have you know what satisfaction you have
caused Us by the liberality with which your people are
endeavoring to contribute by their offerings to reheve
the penury of the Holy See. Many indeed and great are
the necessities for which the Vicar of Christ as supreme
Pastor and Father of the Church is bound to provide in
order to avert evil and to promote the faith. Hence
your generosity becomes an exercise and a testimony of
your faith.

For all these reasons We wish to declare to you again

516 TO THE AMERICAN HIERARCHY.

and again Our affection for you. Let the Apostolic bless-
ing, which We bestow most lovingly in the Lord upon you
all and upon the flocks entrusted to each one of you, be
taken as a token of this affection and an augury of divine
gifts.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

Encyclical Letter Mirce Caritatis, May 28, 1902.

To examine into the nature and to promote the effects of
those manifestations of His wondrous love which, like rays
of light, stream forth from Jesus Christ — this, as befits
Our sacred office, has ever been, and this, with His help to
the last breath of Our life, will ever be Our earnest aim
and endeavor. For, whereas Our lot has been cast in
an age that is bitterly hostile to justice and truth. We
have not failed, as you have been reminded by the apos-
tolic letter which We recently addressed to you, to do
what in Us lay, by Our instructions and admonitions, and
by such practical measures as seemed best suited for
their purpose, to dissipate the contagion of error in its
many shapes, and to strengthen the sinews of the Chris-
tian life. Among these efforts of Ours there are two in
particular, of recent memory, closely related to each other,
from the recollection whereof We gather some fruit of com-
fort, the more seasonable by reason of the many causes of
sorrow that weigh Us down. One of these is the occasion on
which We directed, as a thing most desirable, that the
entire human race should be consecrated by a special
act to the Sacred Heart of Christ our Redeemer; the other
that on which We so urgently exhorted all those who bear
the name Christian to cUng loyally to Him who, by divine
ordinance, is "the Way, the Truth, and the Life," not
for individuals alone but for every rightly constituted
society. And now that same apostohc charity, ever
watchful over the vicissitudes of the Church, moves and

517

518 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

in a manner compels Us to add one thing more, in order
to fill up the measure of what We have already conceived
and carried out. This is, to commend to all Christians,
more earnestly than heretofore, the all-holy Eucharist,
forasmuch as it is a divine gift proceeding from the very
Heart of the Redeemer, who "with desire desireth" this
singular mode of union with men, a gift most admirably
adapted to be the means whereby the salutary fruits of
His redemption may be distributed. Indeed We have not
failed in the past, more than once, to use Our authority
and to exercise Our zeal in this behalf. It gives Us much
pleasure to recall to mind that We have officially approved
and enriched with canonical privileges not a few institu-
tions and confraternities having for their object the per-
petual adoration of the Sacred Host; that We have en-
couraged the holding of Eucharistic Congresses, the re-
sults of which have been as profitable as the attendance
at them has been numerous and distinguished ; that We have
designated as the heavenly patron of these and similar
undertakings St. Paschal Baylon, whose devotion to the
mystery of the Eucharist was so extraordinary.

Accordingly, Venerable Brethren, it has seemed good
to Us to address you on certain points connected with
this same mystery, for the defence and honor of which
the solicitude of the Church has been so constantly en-
gaged, for which martyrs have given their lives, which
has afforded to men of the highest genius a theme to be
illustrated by their learning, their eloquence, their skill
in all the arts ; and this We wiU do in order to render more
clearly evident and more widely known those special
characteristics by virtue of which it is so singularly adapted
to the needs of these our times. It was towards the
close of His mortal life that Christ our Lord left this me-
morial of His measureless love for men, this powerful
means of support for the life of the world} And precisely
for this reason. We, being so soon to depart from this

' John vi. 52.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 519

life, can wish for nothing better than that it may be granted
to Us to stir up and foster in the hearts of all men the dis-
positions of mindful gratitude and due devotion towards
this wonderful Sacrament, wherein most especially lie,
as We hold, the hope and the efficient cause of salvation
and of that peace which all men so anxiously seek.

Some there are, no doubt, who will express their sur-
prise that for the manifold troubles and grievous afflictions
by which our age is harassed We should have determined
to seek for remedies and redress in this quarter rather
than elsewhere, and in some, perchance. Our words will
excite a certain peevish disgust. But this is only the
natural result of pride; for when this vice has taken pos-
session of the heart, it is inevitable that Christian faith,
which demands a most wilHng docility, should languish,
and that a murky darkness in regard of divine truths
should close in upon the mind ; so that in the case of many
these words should be made good: whatever things they
know not, they blaspheme} We, however, so far from
being hereby turned aside from the design which We
have taken in hand, are on the contrary determined all
the more zealously and diligently to hold up the light
for the guidance of the well-disposed, and, with the help
of the united prayers of the faithful, earnestly to implore
forgiveness for those who speak evil of holy things.

To know with an entire faith what is the excellence
of the Most Holy Eucharist is in truth to know what that
work is which, in the might of His mercy, God, made man,
carried out on behalf of the himian race. For as a right
faith teaches us to acknowledge and to worship Christ as
the sovereign cause of our salvation, since He by His
wisdom. His laws, His ordinances. His example, and by
the shedding of His blood, made all things new; so the
same faith likewise teaches us to acknowledge Him and
to worship Him as really present in the Eucharist, as
verily abiding through all time in the midst of men, in
' Jude 10.

520 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

order that their Master, their Good Shepherd, their most
acceptable Advocate with the Father, He may impart
to them of His own inexhaustible abmidance the benefits
of that redemption which He has accomplished. Now
if any one will seriously consider the benefits which flow
from the Eucharist he will understand that conspicuous
and chief among them all is that in which the rest, without
exception, are included ; in a word, it is for men the source
of life, of that life which best deserves the name. The
bread which I mill give is My flesh, for the life of the world}
In more than one way, as We have elsewhere declared, is
Christ the life. He Himself declared that the reason
of His advent among men was this, that He might bring
them the assured fulness of a more than merely human
fife. / am come that they may have life, and may have
it more abundantly.'^ Every one is aware that no sooner
had the goodness and kindness of God our Saviour appeared '
than there at once burst forth a certain creative force
which issued in a new order of things and pulsed through
all the veins of society, civil and domestic. Hence arose
new relations between man and man; new rights and
new duties, public and private; henceforth a new direc-
tion was given to government, to education, to the arts;
and most important of all, man's thoughts and energies
were turned towards rehgious truth and the pursuit of holi-
ness. Thus was life communicated to man, a life truly
heavenly and divine. And thus we are to account for
those expressions which so often occur in Holy Writ:
The tree of life, the word of life, the book of life, the crown of
life, and particularly the bread of life.

But now, since this life of which We are speaking bears
a definite resemblance to the natural life of man, as the
one draws its nourishment and strength from food, so
also the other must have its own food whereby it may b«

» John vi. 52. » John x 10.

*Tit. iii. 4.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 521

sustained and augmented. And here it will be opportune
to recall to mind on what occasion and in what manner
Christ moved and prepared the hearts of men for the
worthy and due reception of the Hving bread which He
was about to give them. No sooner had the rumor spread
of the miracle which He had wrought on the shores of
the lake of Tiberias, when with the multiplied loaves He
fed the multitude, than many forthwith flocked to Him in
the hope that they, too, perchance, might be the recipients
of a like favor. And, just as He had taken occasion from
the water which she had drawn from the well to stir up in
the Samaritan woman a thirst for that water which spring-
eth up unto life everlasting, '^ so now Jesus availed Himself
of this opportunity to excite in the minds of the multi-
tude a keen hunger for the bread which endureth unto
life everlasting.^ Nor, as He was careful to explain to
them, was the bread which He promised the same as
that heavenly manna which had been given to their fathers
during their wanderings in the desert, or again the same
as that which, to their amazement, they had recently
received from Him; but He was Himself that bread: /, said
He, am the bread of life.* And He urges this still further
upon them all both by invitation and by precept: // any
man shall eat of this bread, he shall live forever; and the
bread which I will give is My flesh, for the life of the world.*
And in these other words He brings home to them the
gravity of the precept: Amen, amen, I say to you, unless
you shall eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink His
blood, you shall not have life in you.^ Away then with
the widespread but most mischievous error of those who
give it as their opinion that the reception of the Eucharist
is in a manner reserved for those narrow-minded persons
(as they are deemed) who rid themselves of the cares of
the world in order to find rest in some kind of professedly

* John iv. 14. ' John vi. 48.

'John vi. 27. ■'John vi. 52.

' John vi. 54.

522 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

religious life. For this gift, than which nothing can be
more excellent or more conductive to salvation, is offered
to all those, whatever their office or dignity may be, who
wish — as every one ought to wish — to foster in themselves
that Ufe of divine grace whose goal is the attainment of
the life of blessedness with God.

Indeed it is greatly to be desired that those men would
rightly esteem and would make due provision for life ever-
lasting whose industry or talents or rank have put it in
their power to shape the course of human events. But,
alas I we see with sorrow that such men too often proudly
flatter themselves that they have conferred upon this
world, as it were, a fresh lease of life and prosperity, in-
asmuch as by their own energetic action they are urging
it on to the race for wealth, to a struggle for the possession
of commodities which minister to the love of comfort
and display. And yet, whithersoever we turn, we see that
human society, if it be estranged from God, instead of
enjoying that peace in its possessions for which it had
sought, is shaken and tossed like one who is in the agony
and heat of fever; for while it anxiously strives for pros-
perity, and trusts to it alone, it is pursuing an object that
ever escapes it, clinging to one that ever eludes the grasp.
For as men and states alike necessarily have their being
from God, so they can do nothing good except in God
through Jesus Christ, through whom every best and
choicest gift has ever proceeded and proceeds. But the
source and chief of all these gifts is the venerable Eucharist,
which not only nourishes and sustains that life the desire
whereof demands our most strenuous efforts, but also
enhances beyond measure that dignity of man of which
in these days we hear so much. For what can be more
honorable or a more worthy object of desire than to be
made, as far as possible, sharers and partakers in the
divine nature? Now this is precisely what Christ does
for us in the Eucharist, wherein, after having raised man
by the operation of His grace to a supernatural »tate,

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 523

He yet more closely associates and unites him with
Himself. For there is this difference between the food
of the body and that of the soul, that whereas the former
is changed into our substance, the latter changes us into
its own; so that St. Augustine makes Christ Himself say:
"You shall not change Me into yourself as you do the
food of your body, but you shall be changed into Me." ^
Moreover, in the most admirable Sacrament, which is
the chief means whereby men are engrafted on the di\dne
nature, men also find the most efficacious help towards
progress in every kind of virtue. And first of all in faith.
In all ages faith has been attacked ; for although it elevates
the human mind by bestowing on it the knowledge of
the highest truths, yet because, while it makes known the
existence of divine mysteries, it yet leaves in obscurity
the mode of their being, it is therefore thought to degrade
the intellect. But whereas in past times particular
articles of faith have been made by turns the object of
attack, the seat of war has since been enlarged and ex-
tended, until it has come to this, that men deny alto-
gether that there is anything above and beyond nature.
Now nothing can be better adapted to promote a renewal
of the strength and fervor of faith in the human mind than
the mystery of the Eucharist, the "mystery of faith,"
as it has been most appropriately called. For in this
one mystery the entire supernatural order, with all its
wealth and variety of wonders, is in a manner summed
up and contained: He hath made a remembrance of His
wonderful works, a merciful and gracious Lord; He hath
given food to them that fear Him} For whereas God has
subordinated the whole supernatural order to the Incar-
nation of His Word, in virtue whereof salvation has been
restored to the human race, according to those words of
the Apostle: He hath purposed . . . to re-establish all
things in Christ, that are in heaven and on earth, in Him.^

* Confessions 1. vii., c. x. * Psalm ex. 4, 5.

»Eph. i. 9, 10.

524 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

The Eucharist, according to the testimony of the holy
Fathers, should be regarded as in a manner a continuation
and extension of the Incarnation. For in and by it the
substance of the Incarnate Word is united with individual
men, and the supreme Sacrifice offered on Calvary is in a
wondrous manner renewed, as was signified beforehand
by Malachy in the words: In every place there is sacrifice,
and there is offered to My name a pure oblation} And
this miracle, itself the very greatest of its kind, is ac-
companied by innumerable other miracles; for here all
the laws of nature are suspended; the whole substance
of the bread and wine are changed into the body and the
blood; the species of bread and wine are sustained by
the divine power without the support of any underlying
substance; the body of Christ is present in many places
at the same time, that is to say, wherever the Sacrament
is consecrated. And in order that human reason may
the more willingly pay its homage to this great myster\^,
there have not been wanting, as an aid to faith, certain
prodigies wrought in His honor, both in ancient times
and in our own, of which in more than one place there
exist public and notable records and memorials. It is
plain that by this Sacrament faith is fed, in it the mind
finds its nourishment, the objections of rationalists are
brought to naught, and abundant Hght is thrown on the
supernatural order.

But that decay of faith in divine things of which We
have spoken is the effect not only of pride, but also of
moral corruption. For if it is true that a strict morahty
improves the quickness of man's intellectual powers,
and if on the other hand, as the maxims of pagan phi-
losophy and the admonitions of divine wisdom combine
to teach us, the keenness of the mind is blunted by bodily
pleasures, how much more, in the region of revealed
truths, do these same pleasures obscure the light of faith,
or even, by the just judgment of God, entirely extinguish

' Mai. i. 11.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 525

it. For these pleasures, at the present day, an insatiable
appetite rages, infecting all classes as with an infectious
disease, even from tender years. Yet even for so terrible
an evil there is a remedy close at hand in the divine Eu-
charist. For in the first place it puts a check on lust by
increasing charity, according to the words of St. Augus-
tine, who says, speaking of charity: "As it grows, lust
diminishes; when it reaches perfection, lust is no more." *
Moreover the most chaste flesh of Jesus keeps down the
rebellion of our flesh, as St. Cyril of Alexandria taught,
"For Christ abiding in us lulls to sleep the law of the
flesh which rages in our members," ' Then, too, the special
and most pleasant fruit of the Eucharist is that which is
signified in the words of the prophet: What is the good
thing of Him, that is, of Christ, and what is His beautiful
thing, but the corn of the elect and the wine that engendereth
virgins,^ producing, in other words, that flower and fruit-
age of a strong and constant purpose of virginity which,
even in an age enervated by luxury, is daily multipUed
and spread abroad in the Cathohc Church, with those
advantages to religion and to human society, wherever
it is found, which are plain to see.

To this it must be added that by this same Sacrament
our hope of everlasting blessedness, based on our trust
in the divine assistance, is wonderfully strengthened.
For the edge of that longing for happiness which is so
deeply rooted in the hearts of all men from their birth
is whetted even more and more by the experience of the
deceitfulness of earthly goods, by the unjust violence
of wicked men, and by all those other affictions to which
mind and body are subject. Now the venerable Sacra-
ment of the Eucharist is both the source and the pledge
of blessedness and of glory, and this, not for the soul
alone, but for the body also. For it enriches the soul

* De diversis qusestionibus, IxxxiiL q. 36.
*Lib. iv., c. ii., in Joan, vi. 57.
' Zach. ix. 17.

526 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

with an abundance of heavenly blessings, and fills it with
a sweet joy which far surpasses man's hope and expecta-
tions; it sustains him in adversity, strengthens him in
the spiritual combat, preserves him for life everlasting,
and as a special provision for the journey accompanies
him thither. And in the frail and perishable body that
divine Host, which is the immortal body of Christ, im-
plants a principle of resurreciion, a seed of inmiortality,
which one day must germinate. That to this source
man's soul and body will be indebted for both these boons
has been the constant teaching of the Church, which
has dutifully reaffirmed the affirmation of Christ: He
that eateth My flesh and drinketh My blood hath everlasting
life; and I will raise him up at the last day}

In connection with this matter it is of importance to
consider that in the Eucharist, seeing that it is instituted
by Christ as "a perpetual memorial of His passion,"^ is
proclaimed to the Christian the necessity of a salutary
self-chastisement. For Jesus said to those first priests
of His : Do this in memory of Me; ' that is to say, do this
for the commemoration of My pains. My sorrows, My
grievous afflictions. My death upon the cross. Wherefore
this Sacrament is at the same time a sacrifice, seasonable
throughout the entire period of our penance; and it is
Ukewise a standing exhortation to all manner of toil,
and a solemn and severe rebuke to those carnal pleasures
which some are not ashamed so highly to praise and ex-
tol: As often as ye shall eat this bread, and drink this chalice,
ye shall announce the death of the Lord, until He come*

Furthermore, if any one will diligently examine into the
causes of the evils of our day, he will find that they arise
from this, that as charity towards God has grown cold,
the mutual charity of men among themselves has likewise

' John vi. 55.

' Opusc. hni. Offic. de festo Corporis Christi.

* Luke xxiL 18.

* 1 Cor. xi. 26.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 527

;ooled. Men have forgotten that they are children of
God and brethren in Jesus Christ; they care for nothing
except their own individual interests; the interests and
the rights of others they not only make light of, but often
attack and invade.

Hence frequent disturbances and strifes between class
and class: arrogance, oppression, fraud on the part of
the more powerful: misery, envy, and turbulence among
the poor. These are evils for which it is in vain to seek a
remedy in legislation, in threats of penalties to be incurred,
or in any other device of merely human prudence. Our
chief care and endeavor ought to be, according to the
admonitions which We have more than once given at
considerable length, to secure the union of classes in a
mutual interchange of dutiful services, a union which,
having its origin in God, shall issue in deeds that reflect
the true spirit of Jesus Christ and a genuine charity.
This charity Christ brought into the world, with it He
would have all hearts on fire. For it alone is capable
of affording to soul and body alike, even in this hfe, a
foretaste of blessedness; since it restrains man's inordi-
nate self-love, and puts a check on avarice, which is the
root of all evil} And whereas it is right to uphold all
the claims of justice as between the various classes of
society, nevertheless it is only with the efficacious aid
of charity, which tempers justice, that the eqvxility which
St. Paul commended,^ and which is so salutary for human
society, can be established and maintained. This then
is what Christ intended when He instituted this venerable
Sacrament, namely, by awakening charity towards God
to promote mutual charity among men. For the latter,
as is plain, is by its very nature rooted in the former,
and springs from it by a kind of spontaneous growth.
Nor is it possible that there should be any lack of charity
among men, or rather it must needs be enkindled and

1 1 Tim. vi. 10. * 2 Cor. viii. U,

528 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

flourish, if men would but ponder well the charity which
Christ has shown in this Sacrament. For in it He has
not only given a splendid manifestation of His power
and wisdom, but "has in a manner poured out the riches
of His divine love towards men." ^ Having before our
eyes this noble example set us by Christ, who bestows
on us all that He has, assuredly we ought to love and
help one another to the utmost, being daily more closely
united by the strong bond of brotherhood. Add to this
that the outward and visible elements of this Sacrament
supply a singularly appropriate stimulus to union. On
this topic St. Cyprian writes: "In a word the Lord's
sacrifice S3anbolizes the oneness of heart, guaranteed
by a persevering and inviolable charity, which should
prevail among Christians. For when Our Lord calls
His body bread, a substance which is kneaded together
out of many grains, He indicates that we His people,
whom He sustains, are bound together in close union;
and when He speaks of His blood as wine, in which the
juice pressed from many clusters of grapes is mingled in
one fluid, He likewise indicates that we His flock are by
the commingling of a multitude of persons made one."^
In Uke manner the Angelic Doctor, adopting the senti-
ments of St. Augustine,' writes: "Our Lord has be-
queathed to us His body and blood under the form of
substances in which a multitude of things have been
reduced to unity, for one of them, namely bread, con-
sisting as it does of many grains is yet one, and the other,
that is to say wine, has its unity of being from the con-
fluent juice of many grapes; and therefore St. Augustine
elsewhere says: *0 Sacrament of mercy, O sign of unity,
O bond of charity 1' "* All of which is confirmed by the
declaration of the Council of Trent that Christ left the

» Cone. Trid., Sess. XIII. De Euch. c. il
» Ep. 96 ad Magnum n. 5 (aL 6).
' Tract, xxvi. in Joan. nn. 13, 17.
«Summ. Theol. P. III., q. Ixxix., a. 1.

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 529

Eucharist in His Church "as a symbol of that unity and
charity whereby He would have all Christians mutually
joined and united ... a symbol of that one body of
which He is Himself the head, and to which He would
have us, as members, attached by the closest bonds of
faith, hope, and charity."^ The same idea had been
expressed by St. Paul when he wrote: Far we, being
many, are one bread, one body, all we who partake of the
one bread} Very beautiful and joyful too is the spectacle
of Christian brotherhood and social equality which is
afforded when men of all conditions, gentle and simple,
rich and poor, learned and unlearned, gather round the
holy altar, all sharing alike in this heavenly banquet.
And if in the records of the Church it is deservedly reckoned
to the special credit of its first ages that the multitude
of the believers had but one heart and one soul^ there can
be no shadow of doubt that this immense blessing was
due to their frequent meetings at the divine table; for
we find it recorded of them: They were persevering in
the doctrine of the apostles and in the communion of the
breaking of bread}

Besides all this, the grace of mutual charity among the
living, which derives from the Sacrament of the Eucharist
so great an increase of strength, is further extended by
virtue of the sacrifice to all those who are numbered in
the communion of saints. For the communion of saints,
as every one knows, is nothing but the mutual communica-
tion of help, expiation, prayers, blessings, among all the
faithful, who, whether they have already attained to the
heavenly country, or are detained in the purgatorial fire,
or are yet exiles here on earth, all enjoy the common fran-
chise of that city whereof Christ is the head, and the consti-

» Cone. Trid., Sess. XIII., De Euchar., c. ii.
*1 Cor. X. 17.
» Acts iv. 32.
* Acts ii. 42.

630 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

tution is charity. For faith teaches us, that although the
venerable Sacrifice may be lawfully offered to God alone,
yet it may be celebrated in honor of the saints reigning
in heaven with God who has crowned them, in order
that we may gain for ourselves their patronage. And it
may also be offered — in accordance with an apostolic
tradition — for the purpose of expiating the sins of those
of the brethren who, having died in the Lord, have not
yet fully paid the penalty of their transgressions.

That genuine charity, therefore, which knows how to do
and to suffer all things for the salvation and the benefit
of all, leaps forth with all the heat and energy of a flame
from that Most Holy Eucharist in which Christ Himself
is present and lives, in which He indulges to the utmost
His love towards us, and under the impulse of that divine
love ceaselessly renews His Sacrifice. And thus it is
not difficult to see whence the arduous labors of apostolic
men, and whence those innumerable designs of every kind
for the welfare of the human race which have been set
on foot among Catholics, derive their origin, their strength,
their permanence, their success.

These few words on a subject so vast will. We doubt
not, prove most helpful to the Christian flock, if you in
your zeal. Venerable Brethren, will cause them to be ex-
pounded and enforced as time and occasion may serve.
But indeed a Sacrament so great and so rich in all manner
of blessings can never be extolled as it deserves by human
eloquence, nor adequately venerated by the worship of
man. This Sacrament, whether as the theme of devout
meditation, or as the object of public adoration, or best
of all as a food to be received in the utmost purity of
conscience, is to be regarded as the centre towards which
the spiritual life of a Christian in all its ambit gravitates;
for all other forms of devotion, whatsoever they may be,
lead up to it, and in it find their point of rest. In this
mystery more than in any other that gracious invitation
and still more gracious promise of Christ is realized and

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 531

finds its daily fulfilment: Come to Me, all ye that labor and
are heavily burdened, and I will refresh you}

In a word this Sacrament is, as it were, the very soul
of the Church; and to it the grace of the priesthood is
ordered and directed in all its fulness and in each of its
successive grades. From the same source the Church
draws and has all her strength, all her glory, her every
supernatural endowment and adornment, every good
thing that is hers; wherefore she makes it the chief est
of all her cares to prepare the hearts of the faithful for an
intimate union with Christ through the Sacrament of His
body and blood, and to draw them thereto. And to this
end she strives to promote the veneration of this august
mystery by surrounding it with holy ceremonies. To this
ceaseless and ever watchful care of the Church our mother,
our attention is drawn by that exhortation which was
uttered by the holy Council of Trent, and which is so much
to the purpose that for the benefit of the Christian people
We here reproduce it in its entirety. "The Holy Synod
admonishes, exhorts, asks and implores by the tender
mercy of Our God, that all and each of those who bear
the name of Christian should at last unite and find peace
in this sign of unity, in this bond of charity, in this symbol
of concord; and that, mindful of the great majesty and
singular love of Jesus Christ our Lord, who gave His
precious life as the price of our salvation, and His flesh
for our food, they should beheve and revere these sacred
mysteries of His body and blood with such constancy
of unwavering faith, with such interior devotion and
worshipful piety, that they may be in condition to receive
frequently that supersubstantial bread, and that it may
be to them the life of their souls and keep their mind in
soundness of faith; so that strengthened with its strength
they may be enabled after the journey of this sorrowful
pilgrimage to reach the heavenly country, there to see

»Matt. xL 28.

532 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

and feed upon that bread of angels which here they eat

under the sacramental veils." ^

History bears witness that the virtues of the Christian
life have flourished best wherever and whenever the fre-
quent reception of the Eucharist has most prevailed.
And on the other hand it is no less certain that in days
when men have ceased to care for this heavenly bread,
and have lost their appetite for it, the practice of Chris-
tian religion has gradually lost its force and vigor. And
indeed it was as a needful measure of precaution against
a complete falUng away that Innocent III., in the Council
of the Lateran, most strictly enjoined that no Christian
should abstain from receiving the communion of the
Lord's body at least in the solemn paschal season. But
it is clear that this precept was imposed with regret, and
only as a last resource; for it has always been the desire
of the Church that at every Mass some of the faithful
should be present and should conmiunicate. "The
Holy Synod would wish that in every celebration of the
Mass some of the faithful should take part, not only by
devoutly assisting thereat, but also by the sacramental
reception of the Eucharist, in order that they might more
abundantly partake of the fruits of this holy Sacrifice." '

Most abundant, assuredly, are the salutary benefits
which are stored up in this most venerable mystery,
regarded as a Sacrifice; a Sacrifice which the Church is
accordingly wont to offer daily "for the salvation of the
whole world." And it is fitting, indeed in this age it is
specially important, that by means of the united efforts
of the devout, the outward honor and the inward reverence
paid to this Sacrifice should be alike increased. Accord-
ingly it is Our wish that its manifold excellence may be
both more widely known and more attentively considered.

There are certain general principles the truth of which

1 Cone. Trid., Sess. XXII., c. vl

' Cone. Trid., Sess. XIII. de Euchar. c. viiL

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 533

can be plainly perceived by the light of reason; for in-
stance, that the dominion of God our Creator and Pre-
server over all men, whether in their private or in their
public life, is supreme and absolute; that our whole
being and all that we possess, whether individually or as
members of society, comes from the divine bounty; that
we on our part are bound to show to God, as Our
Lord, the highest reverence, and, as He is our greatest
benefactor, the deepest gratitude. But how many are
there who at the present day acknowledge and discharge
these duties with full and exact observance? In no age
has the spirit of contumacy and an attitude of defiance
towards God been more prevalent than in our own; an
age in which that unholy cry of the enemies of Christ:
We will not have this man to rule over tts,* makes itself
more and more loudly heard, together with the utterance
of that wicked purpose: Let us make away with Him;^
nor is there any motive by which many are hurried on
with more passionate fury, than the desire utterly to
banish God not only from the civil goverrmient, but
from every form of human society. And although men
do not everywhere proceed to this extremity of criminal
madness, it is a lamentable thing that so many are sunk
in oblivion of the divine Majesty and of His favors, and
in particular of the salvation wrought for us by Christ.
Now a remedy must be found for this wickedness on
the one hand, and this sloth on the other, in a general
increase among the faithful of fervent devotion towards
the Eucharistic Sacrifice, than which nothing can give
greater honor, nothing be more pleasing, to God. For
it is a divine Victim which is here immolated; and accord-
ingly through this Victim we offer to the Most Blessed
Trinity all that honor which the infinite dignity of the
Godhead demands; infinite in value and infinitely ac-
ceptable is the gift which we present to the Father in
His only-begotten Son; so that for His benefits to us we

' Luke xix. 14. *Jer. xi. 11.

534 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

not only signify our gratitude, but actually make an
adequate return.

Moreover there is another twofold fruit which we may
and must derive from this great sacrifice. The heart is
saddened when it considers what a flood of mckedness,
the result — as We have said — of forgetfulness and con-
tempt of the divine Majesty, has inundated the world.
It is not too much to say that a great part of the human
race seems to be calling down upon itself the anger of
heaven; though indeed the crop of evils which has grown
up here on earth is already ripening to a just judgment.
Here then is a motive whereby the faithful may be stirred
to a devout and earnest endeavor to appease God the
avenger of sin, and to win from Him the help which is
so needful in these calamitous times. And they should
see that such blessings are to be sought principally by
means of this Sacrifice. For it is only in virtue of the
death which Christ suffered that man can satisfy, and
that most abundantly, the demands of God's justice,
and can obtain the plenteous gifts of His clemency. And
Christ has willed that the whole virtue of His death,
alike for expiation and impetration, should abide in the
Eucharist, which is no mere empty commemoration
thereof, but a true and wonderful, though bloodless and
mystical, renewal of it.

To conclude, We gladly acknowledge that it has been a
cause of no small joy to Us that during these last years a
renewal of love and devotion towards the Sacrament of the
Eucharist has, as it seems, begun to show itself in the
hearts of the faithful ; a fact which encourages Us to hope
for better times and a more favorable state of affairs.
Many and varied, as We said at the commencement,
are the expedients which an inventive piety has devised;
and worthy of special mention are the Confraternities
instituted either with the object of carrying out the Eu-
charistic ritual with greater splendor, or for the perpetual
adoration of the venerable Sacrament by day and night,

THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST. 535

or for the purpose of making reparation for the blas-
phemies and insults of which it is the object. But neither
We nor you, Venerable Brethren, can allow ourselves
to rest satisfied with what has hitherto been done; for
there remain many things which must be further de-
veloped or begun anew, to the end that this most divine
of gifts, this greatest of mysteries, may be better under-
stood and more worthily honored and revered, even by
those who already take their part in the religious services
of the Church. Wherefore, works of this kind which
have been already set on foot must be ever more zealously
promoted; old undertakings must be revived wherever
perchance they may have fallen into decay; for instance,
Confraternities of the Holy Eucharist, intercessory prayers
before the Blessed Sacrament exposed for the veneration
of the faithful, solemn processions, devout visits to God's
tabernacle, and other holy and salutary practices of the
same kind; nothing must be omitted which a prudent
piety may suggest as suitable. But the chief aim of Our
efforts must be that the frequent reception of the Eucharist
may be everywhere revived among Catholic peoples.
For this is the lesson which is taught us by the example,
already referred to, of the primitive Church, by the de-
crees of Councils, by the authority of the Fathers and
of holy men in all ages. For the soul, like the body,
needs frequent nourishment; and the Holy Eucharist
provides that food which is best adapted to the support
of its life. Accordingly all hostile prejudices, those vain
fears to which so many yield, and their specious excuses
from abstaining from the Eucharist, must be resolutely
put aside; for there is question here of a gift than which
none other can be more serviceable to the faithful people,
either for the redeeming of them from the tyranny of
anxious cares concerning perishable things, or for the
renewal of the Christian spirit and perseverance therein.
To this end the exhortations and example of all those
who occupy a prominent position will powerfully cod-

536 THE MOST HOLY EUCHARIST.

tribute, but most especially the resourceful and diligent
zeal of the clergy. For priests, to whom Christ our Re-
deemer entrusted the office of consecrating and dispensing
the mystery of His body and blood, can assuredly make
no better return for the honor which has been conferred
upon them, than by promoting with all their might the
glory of His Eucharist, and by inviting and drawing
the hearts of men to the health-giving springs of this
great Sacrament and Sacrifice, seconding hereby the
longings of His Most Sacred Heart.

May God grant that thus, in accordance with Our
earnest desire, the excellent fruits of the Eucharist may
daily manifest themselves in greater abundance, to the
happy increase of faith, hope, and charity, and of all
Christian virtues; and may this turn to the recovery
and advantage of the whole body pohtic; and may the
wisdom of God's most provident charity, who instituted
this mystery for all time "for the life of the world," shine
forth with an ever brighter light.

Encouraged by such hopes as these, Venerable Brethren,
We, as a presage of the divine hberahty and as a pledge of
Our own charity, most lovingly bestow on each of you,
and on the clergy and flock committed to the care of
each, Our Apostolic Benediction.

THE HOLY SCRIPTURES; THE BIBLICAL
COMMISSION.

Apostolical Letter Vigilantioe, October 30, 1902.

Faithful to the tradition of watchfulness and zeal
by which We, first of all, because of Our office, are bound
to preserve the deposit of faith safe and inviolate. We
gave to the world in the year 1893 the Encyclical Provi-
dentissimus. In it We included, after due examination,
a number of questions concerning the study of Holy Scrip-
ture. The grandeur and extreme utihty of the subject
impelled Us, in effect, to determine, as far as in Us lay,
the directive principle of those studies so necessary now
that the increase of erudition confronts us every day
with the consideration of novel questions which are some-
times in danger of being treated in a manner fraught with
rashness.

Wherefore, We have warned all Catholics, and espe-
cially those in Holy Orders, of ^ the work which each one
should undertake in this matter in accordance with the
abilities with which he is endowed, and We applied Our-
selves with the greatest care to show how and in what
manner these studies should be developed in conformity
with the needs of our epoch. This document has not
been without resvdt, and it is with joy that We recall the
testimonies of submission which the bishops and a great
number of men eminent in science hastened to give Us
while proclaiming at the same time the opportuneness and
the importance of what We had written; and promising
to conform with the greatest diligence to Our instruc-*

537

538 THE BIBLICAL COMMISSION.

tions. Another remembrance no less agreeable comes to
Us in the fact that excellent beginnings were unmediately
made by some in the direction indicated, and an enthu-
siasm awakened in various places in the prosecution of such
studies. Nevertheless, We remark that the causes which
prompted Us to pubUsh the previous Letter are still per-
sistent and more serious. It is therefore necessary to
insist more emphatically on what has already been enjoined
and more than ever to express Our desire that Our Vener-
able Brethren of the episcopate should watch with the
greatest vigilance over these studies. To ensure greater
facihty as well as fruitfulness, We have resolved to add
new strength to Our authority in this matter. As the task
now before Us of explaining these divine books and main-
taining them intact is too difficult for Our Catholic inter-
preters to acquit themselves well of, if left to their indi-
vidual efforts, and because the work is nevertheless so
necessary on account of the manifold developments of
science and the appearance of such multitudinous error,
it is deemed proper that a federation of energies should be
made, and that assistance should be afforded under the
auspices and direction of the Apostohc See. This result,
it appears to Us, can be easily attained if we make use
in the present instance of the means which We have al-
ready employed for advancing other studies.

Wherefore, it has seemed good to Us to institute a
council or, as it is termed, a commission of men of learn-
ing whose duty shall be to effect that in every possible
manner the divine text will find here and from every
quarter the most thorough interpretation which is de-
manded by our times, and be shielded not only from every
breath of error, but also from every temerarious opinion.
It is proper that the principal seat of this commission
should be in Rome, under the very eyes of the Sovereign
Pontiff. As it is the seat of the mistress and guardian
of Christian knowledge, it should also be the centre from
which there should flow through the whole body of th«

THB BIBLICAL COMMISSION. 539

Christian commonwealth the pure and incorruptible
teaching of this science which is now so indispensable.
The men of whom this commission shall be composed,
in order to satisfy fully the serious obligation which is
laid upon them and which confers on them such distinc-
tion, should regard as peculiarly and especially their own
the tasks which are here proposed to their zeal.

In the first place, having established exactly what is
the actual intellectual trend of the present day with re-
gard to this science, they should bear in mind that none
of the recent discoveries which the human mind has made
is foreign to the purpose of their work. On the contrary,
let them make haste in any case where our times have
discovered something useful in the matter of biblical
exegesis to avail themselves of it forthwith and by their
writings to put it at the service of all.

Wherefore they should devote themselves with the
greatest care to the study of philology and kindred sci-
ences and keep themselves abreast of the progress of the
day. As it is generally on this point that the attacks on
Holy Scripture are made, it is there that we should Uke-
wise gather our arms of defence; so that there may be no
inequality in the struggle between truth and error. Like-
wise they shall take measures that the knowledge of the
ancient and oriental languages, and above all the art of
deciphering the ancient texts, should be assiduously culti-
vated. Both of these branches are, as a matter of fact,
a precious help in biblical studies.

In what concerns the integral safeguarding of the au-
thority of the Scriptures, the members of the commission
will employ an active vigilance and unremitting assiduity.
The main point to be attained is that Catholics should not
admit the malignant principle of granting more than is
due to the opinion of heterodox writers, and of thinking
that the true understanding of the Scriptures should be
sought first of all in the researches which the erudition

540 THE BIBLICAL COMMISSION.

of unbelievers has arrived at. Indeed, no Catholic can
consider as subject to doubt these truths which We have
elsewhere referred to at greater length, and they must
know that God has not dehvered the Scriptures to the
private judgment of the learned, but has confided the in-
terpretation of them to the teaching of the Church. "In
the matter of faith and morals which pertain to the teach-
ing of Christian doctrine, the sense of Holy Scripture,
which must be considered as the true sense, is that which
has been adopted and is adopted by our holy mother, the
Church, whose office it is to judge of the real meaning and
interpretation of Holy Scriptures. It is therefore not
permitted to any one to interpret the Holy Scripture in any
way contrary to this sense, or even in any way contrary
to the universal opinion of the Fathers.".^ As We were say-
ing, the nature of the divine books is such that in order
to dissipate the religious obscurity with which they are
shrouded we must never count on the laws of hermeneu-
tics, but must address ourselves to the Church which has
been given by God to mankind as a guide and mistress.
In brief, the legitimate sense of the divine Scriptures is not
to be found outside the Church, nor can it be pronounced
by those who have repudiated her teaching and authority.
The men who are to compose this commission should
therefore watch with great care to safeguard these prin-
ciples and to keep them, as time goes on, with still greater
strictness. And if certain minds profess an exaggerated
admiration for heterodox writers, they must be led by per-
suasion to follow and to obey more faithfully the direc-
tion of the Church.

Doubtless there may arise an occasion when the Catho-
lic interpreter may find some assistance in authors outside
of the Church, especially in matters of criticism, but here
there is need of prudence and discernment. Let our doc-
tors cultivate with care the science of criticism, for it is
of great utility in order to grasp in its complete sense the
^ Cone. Vatic, sess. iii., cap. ii.

THE BIBLICAL COMMISSION. 541

opinion of hagiographers ; and in that they will receive
Our warmest approbation. Let them draw from this sci-
ence new resources by availing themselves even of the as-
sistance of non-Catholic scholars. In doing so they need
not fear Our disapprobation. They should, however, be
careful not to draw from habitual association with such
writers independence of judgment, for in point of fact
the system which is known in our days as higher criticism
frequently leads to such results. Its dangerous rashness
We have more than once already condemned.

In the third place, it is of importance that this com-
mission should consecrate its most special attention to
that part of these studies which properly concerns the
explanation of the Scriptures and which opens to the
faithful a great source of spiritual profit. In whatever
touches the texts whose sense has been fixed in an au-
thentic manner, either by the sacred writers or by the
Church, the commission, it is needless to say, should be
convinced that only that interpretation can be adopted.
Such is the rule of sound hermeneutics. But there exist
numerous passages upon which the Church has not yet
given any fixed or precise definition, with regard to which
it is permitted to each doctor in his individual capacity to
profess and to sustain the opinion which seems to him to
be correct. They must know, however, that on these
points they should keep as the rules of interpretation the
analogy of faith and of Catholic doctrine. Moreover, we
must be on our guard in this matter against transgressing,
in the excessive ardor of debate, the limits of mutual char-
ity. It is also of importance not to seem to discuss re-
vealed truths and divine traditions. If they make light
of intellectual concord, and if these principles are not
safeguarded, we cannot have any right to expect that the
divergent labors of such a great number of scholars will
accomplish any notable progress in this science.

Hence this commission will have as its task to regmate
in a legitimate and suitable manner the principal ques-

542 THE BIBLICAL COMMISSION.

tions which are pending between Catholic doctors in order
to arrive at a conclusion. To settle them the assembly-
will lend sometimes the hght of its judgment, sometimes
the weight of its authority. Their investigations will also
have a result of the greatest advantage, namely, that of
furnishing to the Holy See an opportune occasion to de-
clare what ought to be inviolably maintained by Catholics,
what ought to be reserved for more profound research,
and what ought to be left to the free judgment of each.

Having, therefore, in view to ensure the maintenance
of Catholic authority in its integrity, and to promote the
studies which relate to Holy Scripture in conformity with
the rules which have been herein laid down, We, by these
present Letters, estabhsh in this illustrious city a council
or a special commission. We wish it to be composed of
some cardinals of the Holy Roman Church who shall be
chosen in virtue of Our authority. It is Chir intention to
add to them with the functions and titles of consultors
taking part in the same studies and the same labors,
as it is customary in the sacred Roman commissions, cer-
tain eminent men who belong to different nationahties,
who are recommended by their knowledge in sacred stud-
ies, and above all, in whatever appertains to bibUcal
science.

The commission will hold its fixed reunions and pub-
lish its writings, which will appear periodically or as need
may require. If advice is asked of it, it will reply to
those who consult it. In a word, it will labor by all
means in its power to maintain and to develop the studies
of which We speak. We desire that a report concerning
all the questions which may be treated in common should
be addressed to the Sovereign Pontiff by the consultor, to
whom the commission will have confided the office of
secretary.

In order to furnish members of the commission with
available help, which will be of service to them in any of
these studies. We herewith assign to them for this purpose

THE BIBLICAL COMMISSION. 543

a certain portion of Our Vatican Library. We shall take
care that a numerous collection of manuscripts and vol-
umes of every epoch which treat of biblical questions
shall without delay be classified and placed at the disposi-
tion of the commissioners. It is very desirable that well-
to-do Catholics should come to Our assistance to establish
and enlarge this library in sending to Us resources to be
employed for this end, or useful books, and in so doing
they will render a service in a most fitting manner to
Almighty God, who is the Author of Scriptures and of
the Church.

Moreover, We have confidence that divine Providence
wdll amply bless this undertaking, which has for its direct
object the safeguarding of Christian faith and the eternal
salvation of souls, and that Catholics who are devoted to
the Holy Books will respond with an absolute and com-
plete submission to the declarations of the Holy See on
this point. We wish and We ordain that all and every
one of these prescriptions and decisions which it has
seemed good to Us to make and to formulate on this point
shall be and shall remain ratified and confirmed in the
manner which We have adopted and formulated, any
clause to the contrary notwithstanding.

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES.

The broad stretch of islands bounded by the China
Sea and the Pacific Ocean which Phihp II., King of Spain,
called the Philippines, were scarcely opened up by Ferd-
inand Magellan at the beginning of the sixteenth century
when, with the image of the holy cross planted on their
shores, they were consecrated to God and offered as a
first-fruit offering of the Catholic religion.

From that time the Roman Pontiffs, with the aid of
Charles V. and Philip his son, both remarkable for their
zeal for spreading the faith, have thought nothing more
urgent than to convert the islanders, who were idol-wor-
shippers, to the faith of Christ. With God's help, by the
strenuous efforts of the members of different religious
orders, this came about very favorably and in such a short
time that Gregory XIII. decided to appoint a bishop for
the growing Church there, and constituted Manila an
Episcopal See. With this happy beginning the growth
which followed in after years corresponded in every way.
Owing to the united measures of Our predecessors and of
the Spanish kings, slavery was abolished, the inhabitants
were trained in the ways of civilization by the study of
arts and letters, so that the people and Church in the Phil-
ippines were deservedly distinguished by the renown of
their nation and their meritorious zeal for religion. In
this way, under the direction of the kings of Spain and
the patronage of the Roman Pontiffs, Catholicity was
maintained with due order in the Philippine Islands. But
the change which the fortunes of war have wrought in
civil matters there has affected religion also; for when

544

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES. 545

the Spanish yoke was removed the patronage of the
Spanish kings ceased, and as a result the Church attained
to a larger share of hberty, ensuring for every one rights
which are safe and unassailable.

To provide against the relaxation of ecclesiastical disci-
pline in this new state of affairs, a plan of action and of
organization had to be sought promptly and with great
care. For this purpose We sent Our Venerable Brother
Placide Louis Chapelle, Archbishop of New Orleans, as
Our Delegate Extraordinary to the Philippine Islands,
who, after examining in person and putting to rights
whatever would not admit of delay or postponement, was
then to report to Us. The duties thus imposed he has
discharged faithfully in Our behalf, and deserves for this
reason that We should bestow on him well-merited praise.
Later it happened auspiciously that the Government of
the United States of America undertook, by means of a
special legation, to consider plans for a way of adjusting
certain questions regarding Catholic interests in the Phil-
ippines. This enterprise We gladly encouraged, and by
the skill and moderation of the negotiators a way has
been opened for a settlement, which is to be effected on
the ground itself. After hearing the opinions of some of
the Holy Roman and Eminent Cardinals of the Sacred
Congregation presiding over Extraordinary Affairs, We
decree and declare in this Apostolical Constitution what
has seemed, after long deliberation, to be most conducive
for the interests of the Church in the Philippine Islands,
trusting that what We, by Our supreme authority ordain,
may, with the civil government righteously and favorably
disposed, be zealously and piously observed.

First of all, therefore, it is Our intention and purpose
to increase the sacred hierarchy. When the diocese of
Manila had been created by Gregory XIII., as We have
said, as the faithful rapidly increased in numbers, both
by reason of the natives who embraced the Catholic re-
ligion and of the arrivals from Europe, Clement VIII.

546 THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES.

decided to increase the number of bishops. He therefore
elevated the Church in Manila to the dignity of an Archi-
episcopate, making the Bishops of the three new dioceses
he created,Cebu,Caceres, and Nueva Segovia, suffragans to it.
To these was added later, in the year 1865, the Episcopal See
of Jaro.

Now these dioceses are so vast that, owing to the dis-
tance by which the settlements are separated and the
difficulties of travel, the bishops can scarcely visit them
thoroughly without extreme labor. Wherefore it is
necessary to avail Ourselves of the present opportunity to
reduce the dioceses already established to narrower limits,
and to form new ones. Hence, keeping the Archiepiscopal
See of Manila, and the dioceses of Cebu, Caceres, Nueva
Segovia, and Jaro, We add to them and create four new
dioceses: Lipa, Tuguegarao, Capiz, and Zamboanga, all,
like the others, suffragan to the Manilan Metropolis.
Moreover, in the Marian Islands, We create a Prefecture
ApostoUc subject, without any intermediate authority,
to Ourselves and to Our successors.

The Archbishop of Manila is the one who will bear the
title of "Metropohtan" in the Phihppine Islands; and all
the other bishops, those who fill the old as well as those
who are to occupy the newly created sees, will be subject
to him, as suffragans both in rank and in name. The
rights and the functions of the Metropolitan are laid
down by the ecclesiastical laws already extant. As We
wish that these laws be inviolably observed, so also do We
wish that the bonds of holy friendship and charity be-
tween the MetropoHtan and his suffragans be ever unim-
paired, and grow always closer and more binding by mu-
tual services, exchange of counsel, and especially by fre-
quent episcopal conventions, so far as distance may per-
mit. Concord is the mother and guardian of the greatest
benefits.

The dignity and precedence of the Metropolitan Church
require that it should be honored by a College of Canons.

^ THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES. 547

The Delegate Apostolic will see and determine how to
obtain in future the stipend for each of the canons, which
hitherto was paid by the Spanish government. If, owing
to the shrinkage of revenue, the number of canons cannot
be maintained as heretofore, let it be reduced so as to
consist of ten at least, and retain those who are canons
by right of their office. The archbishop may by his own
unrestricted right confer the aforementioned dignities^
the canonry, and all the benefices which belong to the
Metropohtan Church; except, indeed, those which either
by conmion law are reserved to the Apostohc See, or are
the gift of some other person, or are controlled by the
conditions of the concursus. Wb earnestly desire to have
colleges of canons formed in the other cathedral churches
also. Until such time as this can be done, the bishops are
to choose for consultors some priests, secular and relig-
ious, distinguished by their piety, learning, and experience
in administration, as is done in other dioceses in which
there is no canonical chapter. To provide for the proper
dignity of the sacred ceremonies, the consultors, just men-
tioned, should attend the bishop when officiating. If for
any reason they be prevented from so doing, the bishop
will substitute others, worthy members of the clergy, both
secular and religious.

Should it happen that any suffragan diocese, in which
there is no canonical chapter, should lose its bishop, the
Metropohtan will assume its administration; should there
be none, the charge will fall to the nearest bishop, with
the condition, however, that a vicar be chosen as soon as
possible. Meanwhile the vicar-general of the deceased
bishop will manage the diocese.

Since it is proved by experience that a native clergy is
most useful everywhere, the bishops must make it their
care to increase the number of native priests, in such a
manner, however, as to form them thoroughly in piety
and character, and to make sure that they are worthy to
be entrusted "wath ecclesiastical charges.

548 THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Let them gradually appoint to the more responsible
positions those whom practical experience will prove to be
more efficient. Above all things, the clergy should hold
to the rule that they are not to allow themselves to be
mixed up in party strifes. Although it is a maxim of
common law that he who fights for God should not be
involved in worldly pursuits, We deem it necessary that
men in Holy Orders in the present condition of affairs in
the Philippine Islands should avoid this in a special man-
ner. Moreover, since there is great power in harmony of
sentiment for accomplishing every great useful work for
the sake of reUgion, let all the priests, whether secular or
religious, cultivate it most zealously. It is certainly proper
that they who are one body of the one head Christ should
not envy one another, but be of one will, loving one another
with brotherly charity. To foster this charity and main-
tain a vigorous discipline the bishops are reminded how
very useful it is to convene a synod occasionally as time and
place may require. In this way there will easily be unity
in thought and action. To keep the first fervor of the priests
from cooling and to preserve and increase the virtues
which are worthy of the priesthood, the practice of the
spiritual exercises is most helpful. The bishops must
therefore see that all who have been called to the vine-
yard of the Lord should at least every third year go into
retreat in some suitable place to meditate on the eternal
truths, to remove the stains contracted by worldly con-
tamination and renew their ecclesiastical spirit. Effort
must be made to have the study of the sacred sciences
kept alive among the clergy by frequent exercise. For
the lips of the priest shall keep knowledge, which he can
teach the faithful, who shall seek the law at his mouth}
For this purpose there is nothing better than to have
conferences frequently, both on moral and on liturgical
questions. If the difficulties of travelling, or the small
number of priests, or any other similar cause prevents

* Malachy ii. 7.

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES. 549

them from meeting for such discussions, it will be well
to have those who cannot attend the conferences treat
in writing the questions proposed and submit them to
the bishop at the appointed time.

How much the Church thinks of seminaries for the
young men who are educated with a view to the priest-
hood, is clear from the decree of the Council of Trent, by
which they were first instituted. The bishops should
therefore make the most diligent effort to have one in
each diocese, in which young candidates for the sacred
warfare may be received and trained for a holy living
and in the lower and higher sciences. It is advisable that
the boys who are studying literature should occupy their
own building, and the young men who, after finishing the
humanities, are devoted to philosophy and theology should
dwell in another. In both departments the students
should remain until, if deserving, they shall have been
ordained priests, and never be permitted, except for grave
reasons, to return to their homes. The bishop will en-
trust the administration of the seminary to one of the
clergy, whether secular or religious, who is distinguished
for his prudence and experience in governing and for
holiness of fife. The rules laid down by Us and Our
predecessors show very clearly in what way the studies
are to be regulated in seminaries. Where there is no
seminary the bishop will have candidates educated in one
of the seminaries of the neighboring diocese. On no
account should the bishops admit to these seminaries any
but the young men who are likely to give themselves to
God in Holy Orders. Those who wish to study for the
civil professions should have other schools, if it be pos-
sible, known as episcopal institutions or colleges. Above
all things the bishop, following the precept of the Apostle,
is not lightly to lay hands on any one ; but to raise to Or-
ders and to employ in sacred things only those who when
well tried and duly advanced in science and virtue can be
of credit and of service to a diocese. They are not to

550 THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES.

leave those who go out from the seminary entirely to
themselves; but to keep them from idleness and from
abandoning the study of the sacred sciences, it is an ex-
cellent thing to have them every year for at least five
years after ordination submit to an examination in dog-
matic and moral theology before men of learning and au-
thority. Since the halls of Rome also are open to young
students from the Philippines who may wish to pursue
the higher studies, it will afford Us much pleasure if the
bishops send hither from time to time young men who
may one day communicate to their fellow citizens the
knowledge of religion acquired in this very centre of
truth. This Holy See will do its share in the most effect-
ive way to advance the secular clergy in higher learning
and better ecclesiastical training, so that in good time it
may be worthy to assume the pastoral charges now ad-
ministered by the regular priests.

It is not to the ecclesiastical seminaries only that the
bishops are to devote their attention; the young laymen
who go to other schools are also committed to their care and
providence. It is therefore the duty of the consecrated
bishops to make every effort that the minds of the young
who are instructed in the pubHc schools should not lack
knowledge of their rehgion. To have it taught properly,
the bishops must see and insist that the teachers are
fitted for this task and that the books in use contain
no errors. Since there is question of public schools, We
do not wish to proceed without a word of praise well de-
served for the great Lyceum of Manila, founded by the
Dominicans, and authorized by Innocent X. Since it has
always been distinguished for sound doctrine and excel-
lent teachers, for the great good it has accomplished, not
only do We wish that it be treated with favor by all the
bishops, but besides We take it under Our own care and
that of Our successors. Wherefore confirming absolute-
ly the privileges and honors granted to it by the Roman
Pontiffs Innocent X. and Clement XII., We bestow upon it

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES. 551

the title of Pontifical University, and wish that the aca-
demic degrees conferred by it may have the same value
as the degrees given by other Pontifical Universities.

Yielding to the opportunities of the new order of things
in that region, the Holy Apostolic See has decided to
make suitable provision for the religious men who look
to a manner of fife proper to their Institute, devoted en-
tirely to the duties of the sacred ministry, for the advance-
ment of pubUc moraUty, the increase of Christianity and
peaceful social intercourse. We recommend earnestly,
therefore, to the members of the religious orders to dis-
charge hohly the duties which they have assumed when
pronouncing their vows, "giving no offense to any man."
We command them to keep their rule of cloister invi-
olably ; and wish therefore that all should be bound by the
decree issued by the Congregation of Bishops and Regu-
lars, July 20, 1731, which Clement XIII., Our predeces-
sor, confirmed by Apostolic Letters Nuper pro parte, Au-
gust 26, the same year. The rule and boundary of the
cloister are those which are laid down in another decree
issued with the approbation of Pius VI. by the Sacred
Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, August
24, 1780. For the rest, the religious who labor in the
Philippines must remember to treat with great reverence
and honor those whom the Holy Ghost hath placed to rule
the Church of God: and bound together with the secular
clergy by the closest ties of concord and charity, let them
hold nothing more pressing than to work hand in hand,
throwing all their energy into the work of the ministr}^
and the building up of the body of Christ. Furthermore,
to remove every element of dissension. We wish that in
future in the Philippine Islands the constitution Forman-
dis of Benedict XII., dated November 6, 1744, and the
other Romanos Pontifices, May 8, 1881, in which We de-
cided certain points in dispute between the bishops and
missionary regulars in England and Scotland, be observed.

The bishops will determine what parishes are to be en-

552 THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES.

trusted to pastors from the religious orders after con-
ferring with the superiors of these orders. Should any
question arise in this matter which cannot be settled pri-
vately, the case is to be referred to the Delegate Apostolic.

To the other means, by which the Church as teacher
provides that faith and good morals and all that makes
for the salvation of souls should suffer no harm, must be
added one of the very greatest utility, the spiritual exer-
cises conunonly known as missions. It is altogether de-
sirable, therefore, that in each province at least one house
be founded, as a dwelhng for about eight religious men,
whose one duty it will be to visit occasionally the towns
and villages and better the people by pious exhortations.
If this is so useful for the faithful, it is surely necessary
for those who have not yet received the light of the Gos-
pel. Wherever, therefore, uncivilized peoples are still
buried in monstrous idolatry, the bishops and priests must
know that they are bound to try to convert them. Let
them, therefore, estabhsh stations among them for priests
who will act as their apostles, and not only lead the idol-
aters to Christian practices, but also devote themselves to
the instruction of the children. These stations are to be
so located that in due time they may be made Prefectures
or Vicariates Apostohc. To provide those who labor in
them with means for support and for the propagation of
the faith. We recommend that in each diocese, without
interfering with the Lyons Society for the Propagation
of the Faith, special congregations of men and women be
formed to manage the collection of the alms of the faithful
and hand over the contributions to the bishops, to be
distributed entirely and equally to the missions.

To win the esteem of the faithful there is no better way
than for the clergy to do in effect what as priests they
preach. For, since, as the Council of Trent says, they are
regarded as removed above worldly things to a higher
plane, others lift their eyes to them for a model and imi-
tate what they get from them. Wherefore it is highly

THE CHURCH IN THE PHILIPPINES. 553

proper that priests should so regulate all their manners
that in their dress, carriage, walk, conversation, and in all
things they may appear grave, moderate and altogether
religious; they should avoid even hghter faults, which in
them are serious, so that all their actions may inspire
veneration. It is for this restoration of ecclesiastical
discipline and for the full execution of this Constitution
We have sent our Venerable Brother John Baptist Guidi,
Archbishop of Stauropolis, as Extraordinary Delegate
Apostolic to the Philippine Islands, carrying thither Our
person. On him We have conferred all necessary facul-
ties; and We have given him besides Our mandate to con-
vene and hold a provincial Synod, as soon as circum-
stances permit.

It remains for Us now only to address Ourselves with
paternal charity to all the inhabitants of the Philippine
Islands, and to exhort them with all the persuasion in Our
power to maintain union in the bonds of peace. This the
duty of our Christian profession requires: "For greater
is the brotherhood in Christ, than of blood: for the brother-
hood of blood means only a likeness of body, but brother-
hood in Christ is unanimity in heart and in soul, as it is
written in Acts iv. 32, ' and the multitude of behevers had
but one heart and one soul.'" This, too, is required for
the good of religion, which is the chief source and ground
of the praiseworthy things which have distinguished the
Philippine peoples in the past. This, finally, is required
by a sincere love of country, which will derive nothing
but loss and destruction from public disturbances. Let
them reverence those who exercise authority, according
to the Apostle, "for all power is from God." And al-
though separated from Us by the broad expanse of ocean,
let them know that they are one in faith with the Apos-
tolic See, which embraces them with special affection and
will never abandon its charge of protecting their interests.

[Here follow the usual aflBrmation of the validity of this Coii«
ftitution, and the penalties for disobeying and opposing it.]

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

Apostolical Letter, March 19, 1902.

Having come to the twenty-fifth year of Our Apostolic
Ministry, and being astonished Ourselves at the length
of the way which We have travelled amidst painful and
continual cares, We are naturally inspired to lift Our
thoughts to the ever-blessed God, who, with so many
other favors, has deigned to accord Us a Pontificate the
length of which has scarcely been surpassed in history.
To the Father of all mankind, therefore ; to Him who holds
in His hands the mysterious secret of hfe, ascends, as an
imperious need of the heart, the canticle of Our thanksgiv-
ing. Assuredly the eye of man cannot pierce all the depths
of the designs of God in thus prolonging Our old age be-
yond the limits of hope: here We can only be silent and
adore. But there is one thing which We do well understand ;
namely, that as it has pleased Him, and still pleases Him,
to preserve Our existence, a great duty is incumbent on
Us — to live for the good and the development of His
immaculate spouse, the holy Church; and far from losing
courage in the midst of cares and pains, to consecrate to
Him the remainder of Our strength unto Our last sigh.

After paying a just tribute of gratitude to Our heavenly
Father, to whom be honor and glory for all eternity,
it is most agreeable to Us to turn Our thoughts and address
Our words to you, Venerable Brothers, who, called by the
Holy Ghost to govern the appointed portions of the flock

554

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 555

of Jesiis Christ, share thereby with Us in the struggle and
triumph, the sorrows and joys, of the ministry of pastors.
No, they shall never fade from Our memory, those fre-
quent and striking testimonials of religious veneration
which you have lavished upon Us during the course of
Our Pontificate, and which you still multiply with emula-
tion full of tenderness in the present circumstances. In-
timately united with you already by Our duty and Our
paternal love, We are more closely drawn by those proofs
of your devotedness, so dear to Our hearts, less for what
was personal in them in Our regard than for the inviolable
attachment which they denote to this Apostolic See,
centre and mainstay of all the Sees of Catholicity. If it
has always been necessary that, according to the different
grades of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, all the children of
the Church should be sedulously united by the bonds of
mutual charity and by the pursuit of the same objects,
so as to form but one heart and one soul, this union is
become in our day more indispensable than ever. For who
can ignore the vast conspiracy of hostile forces which aims
to-day at destroying and making disappear the great
work of Jesus Christ, by endeavoring, with a fury which
knows no hmits, to rob man, in the intellectual order, of
the treasure of heavenly truths, and, in the social order,
to obhterate the most holy, the most salutary Christian
institutions. But by all this you yourselves are impressed
every day. You who, more than once, have poured out
to Us your anxieties and anguish, deploring the multitude
of prejudices, the false systems and errors which are dis-
seminated with impunity amongst the masses of the people.
What snares are set on every side for the souls of those
who believe! What obstacles are multiplied to weaken,
and if possible to destroy the beneficent action of the
Church! And, meanwhile, as if to add derision to injustice,
the Church herself is charged with having lost her pristine
vigor, and with being powerless to stem the tide of over-
flowing passions which threaten to carry everything away.

556 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

We would wish, Venerable Brothers, to entertain you
with subjects less sad and more in harmony with the
great and auspicious occasion which induces Us to address
you. But nothing suggests such tenor of discourse —
neither the grievous trials of the Church which call with
instance for prompt remedies; nor the conditions of con-
temporary society which, already undermined from a
moral and material point of view, tend toward a yet more
gloomy future by the abandonment of the great Christian
traditions; a law of Providence, confirmed by history,
proving that the great religious principles cannot be re-
nounced without shaking at the same time the founda-
tions of order and social prosperity. In those circum-
stances, in order to allow souls to recover, to furnish them
with a new provision of faith and courage, it appears to
Us opportune and useful to weigh attentively, in its origin,
causes, and various forms, the implacable war that is waged
against the Church; and in denouncing its pernicious con-
sequences to indicate a remedy. May Our words, there-
fore, resound loudly, though they but recall truths already
asserted; may they be hearkened to, not only by the chil-
dren of Catholic unity, but also by those who differ from
Us, and even by the unhappy souls who have no longer
any faith; for they are all children of one Father, all des-
tined for the same supreme good : may Our words, finally,
be received as the testament which, at the short distance
that separates Us from eternity, We would wish to leave
to the people as a presage of the salvation which We desire
for all.

During the whole course of her history the Church of
Christ has had to combat and suffer for truth and justice.
Instituted by the divine Redeemer Himself to establish
throughout the world the kingdom of God, she must, by
the light of the Gospel law, lead fallen humanity to its
immortal destinies ; that is, to make it enter upon the pos-
session of the blessings without end which God has prom-
ised us, and to which our unaided natural power could

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 557

never rise — a heavenly mission in the pursuit of which
the Church could not fail to be opposed by the countless
passions begotten of man's primal fall and consequent
corruption — pride, cupidity, imbridled desire of material
pleasures; against all the vices and disorders springing
from those poisonous roots the Church has ever been the
most potent means of restraint. Nor should we be as-
tonished at the persecutions which have arisen, in con-
sequence, since the divine Master foretold them, and they
must continue as long as this world endures. What words
did He address to His disciples when sending them to
carry the treasure of His doctrines to all nations? They are
famihar to us all: "You will be persecuted from city to
city: you will be hated and despised for My Name's
sake: you will be dragged before the tribunals, and con-
demned to extreme punishment." And wishing to en-
courage them for the hour of trial, He proposed Himself
as their example: If the world hate you, know ye that it
hath hated Me before you}

Certainly, no one who takes a just and imbiassed view of
things can explain the motive of this hatred. What offence
was ever committed, what hostility deserved by the di-
vine Redeemer? Having come down amongst men through
an impulse of divine charity. He had taught a doctrine that
was blameless, consoling, most efficacious to unite mankind
in a brotherhood of peace and love; He had coveted neither
earthly greatness nor honor; He had usurped no one's
right; on the contrary. He was full of pity for the weak,
the sick, the poor, the sinner, and the oppressed: hence
His life was but a passage to distribute with munificent
hand His benefits amongst men. We must acknowledge,
in consequence, that it was simply by an excess of human
malice, so much the more deplorable because unjust, that,
nevertheless. He became, in truth, according to the
prophecy of Simeon, "a sign to be contradicted."

What wonder, then, if the Catholic Church, which

' St. John XV. 18.

658 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

continues His divine mission, and is the incorruptible
depositary of His truths, has inherited the same lot.
The world is always consistent in its way. Near the
sons of God are constantly present the satellites of that
great adversary of the human race, who, a rebel from
the beginning against the Most High, is named in the
Gospel the prince of this world. It is on this account
that the spirit of the world, in the presence of the law
and of him who announces it in the name of God, swells
with the measureless pride of an independence that ill
befits it. Alas, how often, in more stormy epochs, with
unheard-of cruelty and shameless injustice, and to the
evident undoing of the whole social body, have the ad-
versaries banded themselves together for the foolhardy
enterprise of dissolving the work of God! And not suc-
ceeding with one manner of persecution, they adopted
others. For three long centuries, the Roman Empire,
abusing its brute force, scattered the bodies of martyrs
through all its provinces, and bathed with their blood
every foot of ground in this sacred city of Rome; while
heresy, acting in concert, whether hidden beneath a
mask or with open effrontery, with sophistry and snare,
endeavored to destroy at least the harmony and unity
of faith. Then were set loose, Uke a devastating tempest,
the hordes of barbarians from the north, and the Moslems
from the south, leaving in their wake only ruins in a desert.
So has been transmitted from age to age the melancholy
heritage of hatred by which the Spouse of Christ has
been overwhelmed. There followed a Caesarism as sus-
picious as powerful, jealous of all other power, no matter
what development it might itself have thence acquired,
which incessantly attacked the Church, to usurp her
rights and tread her liberties under foot. The heart
bleeds to see this mother so often oppressed with anguish
and woes unutterable. However, triumphing over every
obstacle, over all violence and all tyrannies, she pitched
her peaceful tents more and more widely; she saved

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 559

from disaster the glorious patrimony of arts, history,
science, and letters; and imbuing deeply the whole body
of society with the spirit of the Gospel, she created Chris-
tian civiUzation — that civihzation to which the nations,
subjected to its beneficent influence, owe the equity of
their laws, the mildness of their manners, the protection
of the weak, pity for the afflicted and the poor, respect
for the rights and dignity of all men and thereby, as far
as it is possible amidst the fluctuations of hmnan affairs,
that calm of social life which springs from the just and
prudent alliance between justice and liberty.

Those proofs of the intrinsic excellence of the Church
are as striking and sublime as they have been enduring.
Nevertheless, as in the Middle Ages and during the first
centuries, so in those nearer our own, we see the Church
assailed more harshly, in a certain sense at least, and
more distressingly than ever. Through a series of well-
known historical causes, the pretended Reformation of
the sixteenth century raised the standard of revolt; and,
determining to strike out straight into the heart of the
Church, audaciously attacked the Papacy. It broke the
precious link of the ancient unity of faith and authority,
which, multiplying a hundredfold power, prestige, and
glory, thanks to the harmonious pursuit of the same objects,
united all nations under one staff and one shepherd. This
unity being broken, a pernicious principle of disintegra-
tion was introduced amongst all ranks of Christians.

We do not, indeed, hereby pretend to affirm that from
the beginning there was a set purpose of destroying the
principle of Christianity in the heart of society; but by
refusing, on the one hand, to acknowledge the supremacy
of the Holy See, the effective cause and bond of unity,
and by proclaiming, on the other, the principle of private
judgment, the divine structure of faith was shaken to its
deepest foundations and the way was opened to infinite
variations, to doubts and denials of the most important
things, to an extent which the innovators themselves had

560 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

not foreseen. The way was opened. Then came the con-
temptuous and mocking philosophism of the eighteenth
century, which advanced farther. It turned to ridicule
the sacred canon of the Scriptures and rejected the entire
system of revealed truths, with the purpose of being able
ultimately to root out from the conscience of the people
all religious behef and stifling within it the last breath
of the spirit of Christianity. It is from this source that
have flowed rationalism, pantheism, naturalism, and ma-
terialism— poisonous and destructive systems which, under
different appearances, renew the ancient errors triimi-
phantly refuted by the Fathers and Doctors of the Church;
so that the pride of modern times, by excessive confidence
in its own lights, was stricken with bhndness; and, like
paganism, subsisted thenceforth on fancies, even con-
cerning the attributes of the human soul and the immortal
destinies which constitute our glorious heritage.

The struggle against the Church thus took on a more
serious character than in the past, no less because of the
vehemence of the assault than because of its universaHty.
Contemporary unbelief does not confine itself to denying
or doubting articles of faith. What it combats is the
whole body of principles which sacred revelation and
sound philosophy maintain; those fundamental and holy
principles which teach man the supreme object of his
earthly life, which keep him in the performance of his
duty, which inspire his heart with courage and resigna-
tion, and which, in promising him incorruptible justice
and perfect happiness beyond the tomb, enable him to
subject time to eternity, earth to heaven. But what
takes the place of these principles which form the incom-
parable strength bestowed by faith? A frightful scep-
ticism, which chills the heart and stifles in the conscience
every magnanimous aspiration.

This system of practical atheism must necessarily cause,
as in point of fact it does, a profound disorder in the do-
main of morals; for, as the greatest philosophers of an-

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 561

tiquity have declared, religion is the chief foundation of
justice and virtue. When the bonds are broken which
unite man to God, who is the Sovereign Legislator and
Universal Judge, a mere phantom of morality remains;
a morality which is purely civic and, as it is termed, inde-
pendent, which, abstracting from the Eternal Mind and
the laws of God, descends inevitably till it reaches the
ultimate conclusion of making man a law unto himself.
Incapable, in consequence, of rising on the wings of Chris-
tian hope to the goods of the world beyond, man will seek
a material satisfaction in the comforts and enjoyments of
life. There will be excited in him a thirst for pleasure,
a desire of riches, and an eager quest of rapid and un-
limited wealth, even at the cost of justice. There will
be enkindled in him every ambition and a feverish and
frenzied desire to gratify them even in defiance of law,
and he will be swayed by a contempt for right and for
public authority, as well as by Ucentiousness of hfe which,
when the condition becomes general, will mark the real
decay of society.

Perhaps We may be accused of exaggerating the sad
consequences of the disorders of which We speak. No;
for the reality is before our eyes and warrants but too
truly Our forebodings. It is manifest that if there is not
some betterment soon, the bases of society will crumble
and drag down with them the great and eternal principles
of law and morality.

It is in consequence of this condition of things that
the social body, beginning with the family, is suffering
such serious evUs. For the lay State, forgetting its limi-
tations and the essential object of the authority which
it wields, has laid its hands on the marriage bond to pro-
fane it and has stripped it of its rehgious character; it has
dared as much as it could in the matter of that natural
right which parents posses to educate their children,
and in many countries it has destroyed the stability of
marriage by giving a legal sanction to the Hcentious insti-

562 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

tution of divorce. All know the result of these attacks.
More than words can tell they have multiplied marriages
which are prompted only by shameful passions, which
are speedily dissolved, and which, at times, bring about
bloody tragedies, at others the most shocking infideUties.
We say nothing of the innocent offspring of these unions,
the children who are abandoned or whose morals are cor-
rupted on one side by the bad example of the parents,
on the other by the poison which the officially lay State
constantly pours into their hearts.

Along with the family, the political and social order
is also endangered by doctrines which ascribe a false
origin to authority, and which have corrupted the genuine
conception of government. For if sovereign authority
is derived formally from the consent of the people and not
from God, who is the supreme and Eternal Principle of
all power, it loses in the eyes of the governed its most
august characteristic and degenerates into an artificial
sovereignty which rests on unstable and shifting bases,
namely, the will of those from whom it is said to be de-
rived. Do we not see the consequences of this error in
the carrying out of our laws? Too often these laws in-
stead of being sound reason formulated in writing are but
the expression of the power of the greater number and
the will of the predominant political party. It is thus
that the mob is cajoled in seeking to satisfy its desires;
that a loose rein is given to popular passion, even when it
disturbs the laboriously acquired tranquillity of the State,
when the disorder in the last extremity can only be quelled
by violent measures and the shedding of blood.

Consequent upon the repudiation of those Christian
principles which had contributed so efficaciously to unite
the nations in the bonds of brotherhood, and to bring
all humanity into one great family, there hsis arisen Uttle
by little, in the international order, a system of jealous
egoism, in consequence of which the nations now watch
each other, if not with hate, at least with the susoicion of

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 563

rivals. Hence, in their great undertakings they lose
sight of the lofty principles of morality and justice and
forget the protection which the feeble and the oppressed
have a right to demand. In the desire by which they are
actuated to increase their national riches, they regard
only the opportunity which circumstances afford, the ad-
vantages of successful enterprises, and the tempting bait
of an accomphshed fact, sure that no one will trouble them
in the name of right or the respect which right can claim.
Such are the fatal principles which have consecrated
material power as the supreme law of the world, and to
them is to be imputed the limitless increase of miUtary
establishments and that armed peace which in many
respects is equivalent to a disastrous war.

This lamentable confusion in the realm of ideas has
produced restlessness among the people, outbreaks, and
the general spirit of rebellion. From these have sprung
the frequent popular agitations and disorders of our times
which are only the preludes of much more terrible disorders
in the future. The miserable condition, also, of a large
part of the poorer classes, who assuredly merit our assist-
ance, furnishes an admirable opportunity for the designs
of scheming agitators, and especially of socialist factions,
which hold out to the humbler classes the most extrava-
gant promises and use them to carry out the most dread-
ful projects.

Those who start on a dangerous descent are soon hurled
down in spite of themselves into the abyss. Prompted by
an inexorable logic, a society of veritable criminals has
been organized, which, at its very first appearance, has,
by its savage character, startled the world. Thanks to
the solidarity of its construction and its international
ramifications, it has already attempted its wicked work,
for it stands in fear of nothing and recoils before no danger.
Repudiating all union with society, and cynically scoffing
at law, religion, and morality, its adepts have adopted
the name of Anarchists, and propose to utterly subvert

the actual conditions of society by making use of every
means that a bhnd and savage passion can suggest. And
as society draws its unity and its hfe from the authority
which governs it, so it is against authority that anarchy
directs its efforts. Who does not feel a thrill of horror,
indignation, and pity at the remembrance of the many
victims that of late have fallen beneath its blows, em-
perors, empresses, kings, presidents of powerful repub-
lics, whose only crime was the sovereign power with which
they were invested?

In presence of the immensity of the evils which over-
whelm society and the perils which menace it, Our duty
compels Us to again warn all men of good will, especially
those who occupy exalted positions, and to conjure them
as We now do, to devise what remedies the situation calls
for and with prudent energy to apply them without delay.

First of all, it behooves them to inquire what remedies
are needed, and to examine well their potency in the present
needs. We have extolled liberty and its advantages to
the skies, and have proclaimed it as a sovereign remedy
and an incomparable instrument of peace and prosperity
which will be most fruitful in good results. But facts have
clearly shown us that it does not possess the power which
it attributed to it. Economic conflicts, struggles of the
classes are surging around us like a conflagration on all sides,
and there is no promise of the dawn of the day of public
tranquillity. In point of fact, and there is no one who does
not see it, hberty as it is now understood, that is to say,
a hberty granted indiscriminately to truth and to error,
to good and to evil, ends only in destroying all that is noble,
generous, and holy, and in opening the gates still wider
to crime, to suicide, and to a multitude of the most de-
grading passions.

The doctrine is also taught that the development of
public instruction, by making the people more polished
and more enlightened, would suffice as a check to unhealthy
tendencies and to keep man in the ways of uprightness

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 565

and probity. But a hard reality has made us feel every
day more and more of how little avail is instruction without
religion and morahty. As a necessary consequence of in-
experience, and of the promptings of bad passions, the mind
of youth is enthralled by the perverse teachings of the
day. It absorbs all the errors which an unbridled press
does not hesitate to sow broadcast and which depraves
the mind and the will of youth and foments in them that
spirit of pride and insubordination which so often trouble
the peace of families and cities.

So also was confidence reposed in the progress of science.
Indeed the century which has just closed, has witnessed
progress that was great, unexpected, stupendous. But
is it true that it has given us all the fulness and health-
fulness of fruitage that so many expected from it? Doubt-
less the discoveries of science have opened new horizons
to the mind; it has widened the empire of man over the
forces of matter, and human life has been amehorated in
many ways through its instrumentality. Nevertheless,
every one feels and many admit that the results have not
corresponded to the hopes that were cherished. It cannot
be denied, especially when we cast our eyes on the intel-
lectual and moral status of the world as well as on the
records of criminahty, when we hear the dull murmurs
which arise from the depths, or when we witness the pre-
dominance which might has won over right. Not to speak
of the throngs who are a prey to every misery, a super-
ficial glance at the condition of the world will suffice to
convince us of the indefinable sorrow which weighs upon
souls and the immense void which is in human hearts.
Man may subject nature to his sway, but matter cannot
give him what it has not, and to the questions which most
deeply affect our gravest interests human science gives
no reply. The thirst for truth, for good, for the infinite,
which devours us, has not been slaked, nor have the joys
and riches of earth, nor the increase of the comforts of
life ever soothed the anguish which tortures the heart.

566 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

Are we then to despise and fling aside the advantages
which accrue from the study of science, from civihzation
and the wise and sweet use of our hberty? Assuredly not.
On the contrary, we must hold them in the highest esteem,
guard them and make them grow as a treasure of great
price, for they are means which of their nature are good,
designed by God Himself, and ordained by the Infinite
Goodness and Wisdom for the use and advantage of the
human race. But we must subordinate the use of them
to the intentions of the Creator, and so employ them as
never to eliminate the religious element in which their
real advantage resides, for it is that which bestows on
them a special value and renders them really fruitful.
Such is the secret of the problem When an organism
perishes and corrupts, it is because it had ceased to be
under the action of the causes which had given it its form
and constitution. To make it health}^ and flourishing
again it is necessary to restore it to the vivifying action
of those same causes. So society in its foolhardy effort to
escape from God has rejected the divine order and revela-
tion; and it is thus withdrawn from the salutary efficacj''
of Christianity which is manifestly the most solid guarantee
of order, the strongest bond of fraternity, and the inex-
haustible source of all public and private virtue. This
sacrilegious divorce has resulted in bringing about
the trouble which now disturbs the world. Hence it is
the pale of the Church which this lost society must re-
enter, if it wishes to recover its well-being, its repose, and
its salvation.

Just as Christianity cannot penetrate in the soul without
making it better, so it cannot enter into public life without
establishing order. With the idea of a God who governs
all, who is infinitely wise, good, and just, the idea of duty
seizes upon the consciences of men. It assuages sorrow,
it calms hatred, it engenders heroes. If it has trans-
formed pagan society — and that transformation was a
veritable resurrection — for barbarism disappeared in pro-

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 567

portion as Christianity extended its sway, so, after the
terrible shocks which unbelief has given to the world in our
days, it will be able to put that world again on the true
road, and bring back to order the states and peoples of
modern times. But the return of Christianity will not
be efficacious and complete if it does not restore the world
to a sincere love of the one Holy Catholic and Apostolic
Church. In the Catholic Church Christianity is incarnate.
It identifies itself with that perfect, spiritual, and, in its
own order, sovereign society, which is the mystical body
of Jesus Christ and which has for its visible head the Roman
Pontiff, successor of the Prince of the apostles. It is the
continuation of the mission of the Saviour, the daughter
and the heiress of His redemption. It has preached the
Gospel, and has defended it at the price of its blood, and
strong in the divine assistance and of that immortality
which have been promised it, it makes no terms with error,
but remains faithful to the commands which it has re-
ceived to carry the doctrine of Jesus Christ to the utter-
most limits of the world and to the end of time, and to
protect it in its inviolable integrity. Legitimate dispen-
ser of the teachings of the Gospel it does not reveal
itself only as the consoler and redeemer of souls, but it is
still more the internal source of justice and charity, and
the propagator as well as the guardian of true liberty, and
of that equality which alone is possible here below. In apply-
ing the doctrine of its divine Founder, it maintains a wise
equilibrium and marks the true limits between the rights
and privileges of society. The equality which it proclaims
does not destroy the distinction between the different
social classes. It keeps them intact, as nature itself de-
mands, in order to oppose the anarchy of reason emanci-
pated from faith, and abandoned to its own devices. The
liberty which it gives in no wise conflicts with the rights
of truth, because those rights are superior to the demands
of liberty. Nor does it infringe upon the rights of justice,
because those rights are superior to the claims of mere

668 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

numbers or power. Nor does it assail the rights of God
because they are superior to the rights of humanity.

In the domestic circle, the Church is no less fruitful in
good results. For not only does it oppose the nefarious
machinations which incredulity resorts to in order to attack
the life of the family, but it prepares and protects the
union and stability of marriage, whose honor, fidehty, and
holiness it guards and develops. At the same time it sus-
tains and cements the civil and poHtical order by giving
on one side most efficacious aid to authority, and on the
other by showing itself favorable to the wise reforms and
the just aspirations of the classes that are governed; by
imposing respect for rulers and enjoining whatever obe-
dience is due to them, and by defending unwaveringly the
imprescriptible rights of the human conscience. And
thus it is that the people who are subject to her influence
have no fear of oppression because she checks in their efforts
the rulers who seek to govern as tyrants.

Fully aware of this divine power, We, from the very
beginning of Our Pontificate, have endeavored to place
in the clearest light the benevolent designs of the Church
and to increase as far as possible, along with the treasures
of her doctrine the field of her salutary action. Such has
been the object of the principal acts of Our Pontificate,
notably in the Encyclicals on Christian Philosophy, on
Human Liberty, on Christian Marriage, on Freemasonry,
on The Powers of Government, on The Christian Constitu-
tion of States, on Socialism, on the Labor Question, and the
Duties of Christian Citizens and other analogous subjects.
But the ardent desire of Our souls has not been merely to
illumine the mind. We have endeavored to move and to
purify hearts by making use of all Our powers to cause
Christian virtue to flourish among the peoples. For that
reason We have never ceased to bestow encouragement
and counsel in order to elevate the minds of men to the
goods of the world beyond; to enable them to subject the
body to the soul; their earthly life to the heavenly on«;

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 569

man to God. Blessed by the Lord, Our word has been
able to increase and to strengthen the convictions of a
great number of men; to throw light on their minds in
the difficult questions of the day; to stimulate their zeal
and to advance the various works which have been un-
dertaken.

It is especially for the disinherited classes that these
works have been inaugurated, and have continued to
grow in every country, as is evident from the increase of
Christian charity which has always found in the midst of the
people its favorite field of action. If the harvest has not
been more abundant, Venerable Brothers, let us adore
God who is mysteriously just and beg Him, at the same
time, to have pity on the bhndness of so many souls,
to whom unhappily the terrifying word of the Apostle
may be addressed: The god of this world has blinded the
minds of unbelievers, that the light of the Gospel of the glory
of Christ, who is the image of God, should not shine to
them}

The more the Catholic Church devotes itself to extend
its zeal for the moral and material advancement of the
peoples, the more the children of darkness arise in hatred
against it and have recourse to every means in their power
to tarnish its divine beauty and paralyze its action of
life-giving reparation. How many false reasonings have
they not made and how many calumnies have they not
spread against it! Among their most perfidious devices
is that which consists in repeating to the ignorant masses
and to suspicious governments that the Church is opposed
to the progress of science, that it is hostile to liberty, that
the rights of the State are usurped by it and that politics is
a field which it is constantly invading. Such are the mad
accusations that have been a thousand times repudiated
and a thousand times refuted by sound reason and by
history and, in fact, by every man who has a heart foi
honesty and a mind for truth.

» 2 Cor. iv. 4.

570 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

The Church the enemy of knowledge and instruction!
Without doubt she is the vigilant guardian of revealed
dogma, but it is this very vigilance which prompts her
to protect science and to favor the wise cultivation of
the mind. No! in submitting his mind to the revelation
of the Word, who is the supreme truth from whom all truths
must flow, man will in no wise contradict what reason
discovers. On the contrary, the light which will come
to him from the divine Word will give more power and
more clearness to the human intellect, because it will
preserve it from a thousand uncertainties and errors.
Besides, nineteen centuries of a glory achieved by Ca-
tholicism in all the branches of learning amply suffice to
refute this calumny. It is to the Catholic Church that we
must ascribe the merit of having propagated and defended
Christian philosophy, without which the world would still
be buried in the darkness of pagan superstitions and in
the most abject barbarism. It has preserved and trans-
mitted to all generations the precious treasure of litera-
ture and of the ancient sciences. It has opened the first
schools for the people and crowded the universities which
still exist, or whose glory is perpetuated even to our own
days. It has inspired the loftiest, the purest, and the
most glorious literature, while it has gathered under its
protection men whose genius in the arts has never been
eclipsed.

The Church the enemy of liberty ! Ah, how they travesty
the idea of liberty which has for its object one of the most
precious of God's gifts when they make use of its name
to justify its abuse and excess! What do we mean by
liberty? Does it mean the exemption from all laws; the
deliverance from all restraint, and as a corollary, the right
to take man's caprice as a guide in all our actions? Such
liberty the Church certainly reproves, and good and
honest men reprove it likewise. But do they mean by
liberty the rational faculty to do good, magnanimously,
without check or hindrance and according to the rule*

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 571

which eternal justice has established? That liberty which
is the only liberty worthy of man, the only one useful to
society, none favors or encourages or protects more than
the Church. By the force of its doctrine and the effica-
ciousness of its action the Church has freed humanity
from the yoke of slavery in preaching to the world the
great law of equaUty and human fraternity. In every
age it has defended the feeble and the oppressed against
the arrogant domination of the strong. It has demanded
Uberty of Christian conscience while pouring out in torrents
the blood of its martyrs; it has restored to the child and
to the woman the dignity and the noble prerogatives
of their nature in making them share by virtue of the
same right that reverence and justice which is their due,
and it has largely contributed, both to introduce and
maintain civil and political Hberty in the heart of the
nations.

The Church the usurper of the rights of the State ! The
Church invading the political domain! Why, the Church
knows and teaches that her divine Founder has commanded
us to give to Caesar what is Caesar's and to God what is God's,
and that He has thus sanctioned the immutable principle
of an enduring distinction between those two powers which
are both sovereign in their respective spheres, a distinc-
tion which is most pregnant in its consequences and emi-
nently conducive to the development of Christian civiliza-
tion. In its spirit of charity it is a stranger to every hostile
design against the State. It aims only at making these
two powers go side by side for the advancement of the
same object, namely, for man and for human society,
but by different ways and in conformity with the noble
plan which has been assigned for its divine mission. Would
to God that its action were received without mistrust and
without suspicion. It could not fail to multiply the
numberless benefits of which We have already spoken. To
accuse the Church of ambitious views is only to repeat
the ancient calumny, a calumny which its pow^erful enemies

572 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

have more than once employed as a pretext to conceal
their own purposes of oppression.

Far from oppressing the State, history clearly shows
when it is read without prejudice, that the Church like its
divine Founder has been, on the contrary, most commonly
the victim of oppression and injustice. The reason is
that its power rests not on the force of arms but on the
strength of thought and of truth.

It is therefore assuredly with malignant purpose that
they hurl against the Church accusations hke these. It
is a pernicious and disloyal work, in the pursuit of which
above all others a certain sect of darkness is engaged, a
sect which human society these many years carries within
itself and which like a deadly poison destroys its happiness,
its fecundity, and its Ufe. Abiding personification of the
revolution, it constitutes a sort of retrogressive society
whose object is to exercise an occult suzerainty over the
established order and whose whole purpose is to make
war against God and against His Church. There is no
need of naming it, for all will recognize in these traits the
society of Freemasons, of which We have already spoken,
expressly in Our Encyclical Humanum Genus of the
twentieth of April, 1884. While denouncing its destruc-
tive tendency, its erroneous teachings, and its wicked
purpose of embracing in its far-reaching grasp almost all
nations, and uniting itself to other sects which its secret
influence puts in motion, directing first and afterwards
retaining its members by the advantages which it pro-
cures for them, bending governments to its will, sometimes
by promises and sometimes by threats, it has succeeded
in entering all classes of society, and foiTQs an invisible
and irresponsible state existing within the legitimate State.
Full of the spirit of Satan who, according to the words
of the Apostle, knows how to transform himself at need
into an angel of light, it gives prominence to its hmnani-
tarian object, but it sacrifices everyiihing to its sectarian
purpose and protests that it has no political aim, while

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 573

in reality it exercises the most profound action on the
legislative and administrative life of the nations, and while
loudly professing its respect for authority and even for
religion, has for its ultimate purpose, as its own statutes
declare, the destruction of all authority as well as of the
priesthood, both of which it holds up as the enemies of
liberty.

It becomes more evident day by day that it is to the
inspiration and the assistance of this sect that we must
attribute in great measure the continual troubles with which
the Church is harassed, as well as the recrudescence of
the attacks to which it has recently been subjected. For
the simultaneousness of the assaults in the persecutions
which have so suddenly burst upon us in these later
times, like a storm from a clear sky, that is to say without
any cause proportionate to the effect; the uniformity
of means employed to inaugurate this persecution, namely,
the press, pubHc assembUes, theatrical productions; the
employment in every country of the same arms, to wit,
calumny and public uprisings, all this betrays clearly
the identity of purpose and a program drawn up by one
and the same central direction. All this is only a simple
episode of a prearranged plan carried out on a constantly
widening field to multiply the ruins of which We speak.
Thus they are endeavoring by every means in their power
first to restrict and then to completely exclude religious
instruction from the schools so as to make the rising
generation unbelievers or indifferent to all reHgion ; as they
are endeavoring by the daily press to combat the moraHty
of the Church, to ridicule its practices and its solemnities.
It is only natural, consequently, that the Cathohc priest-
hood, whose mission is to preach religion and to administer
the sacraments, should be assailed with a special fierce-
ness. In taking it as the object of their attacks this sect
aims at diminishing in the eyes of the people its prestige
and its authority. Already their audacity grows hour
by hour in proportion as it flatters itself that it can do

574 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

so with impunity. It puts a malignant interpretation
on all the acts of the clergy, bases suspicion upon the
slenderest proofs and overwhelms it with the vilest accu-
sations. Thus new prejudices are added to those with
which the clergy are already overwhelmed, such for ex-
ample as their subjection to military service, which is
such a great obstacle for the preparation for the priest-
hood, and the confiscation of the ecclesiastical patrimony
which the pious generosity of the faithful had founded.

As regards the religious orders and religious con-
gregations, the practice of the evangelical counsels
made them the glory of society and the glory of religion.
These very things rendered them more culpable in the
eyes of the enemies of the Church and were the reasons
why they were fiercely denounced and held up to contempt
and hatred. It is a great grief for Us to recall here the
odious measures which were so undeserved and so strongly
condemned by all honest men by which the members of
religious orders were lately overwhelmed. Nothing was
of avail t save them, neither the integrity of their life
which their enemies were unable to assail, nor the right
which authorizes all natural associations entered into for
an honorable purpose, nor the right of the constitutions
which loudly proclaimed their freedom to enter into those
organizations, nor the favor of the people who were so
grateful for the precious services rendered in the arts, in
the sciences, and in agriculture, and for the charity which
poured itself out upon the most numerous and poorest
classes of society. And hence it is that these men and
women who themselves had sprung from the people and
who had spontaneously renounced all the joys of family
to consecrate to the good of their fellow men, in those
peaceful associations, their youth, their talent, their
strength, and their lives, were treated as malefactors as if
they had formed criminal associations, and have been
excluded from the common and prescriptive rights at the
very time when men are speaking loudest of liberty. We

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 575

must not be astonished that the most beloved children
are struck when the father himself, that is to say the head
of Catholicity, the Roman Pontiff, is no better treated.
The facts are known to all. Stripped of the temporal
sovereignty and consequently of that independence which
is necessary to accomplish his univereal and divine mission;
forced in Rome itself to shut himself up in his own dwell-
ing because the enemy has laid siege to him on every side,
he has been compelled in spite of the derisive assurances
of respect and of the precarious promises of liberty to an
abnormal condition of existence which is unjust and un-
worthy of his exalted ministry. We know only too well
the difficulties that are each instant created to thwart
his intentions and to outrage his dignity. It only goes
to prove what is every day more and more evident that it
is the spiritual power of the head of the Church which
little by Httle they aim at destroying when they attack
the temporal power of the papacy. Those who are the
real authors of this spoliation have not hesitated to con-
fess it.

Judging by the consequences which have followed,
this action was not only impolitic, but was an attack on
society itself; for the assaults that are made upon religion
are so many blows struck at the very heart of society.

In making man a being destined to Uve in society, God
in His providence has also founded the Church, which as
the holy text expresses it, He has estabhshed on Mount
Zion in order that it might be a light which, with its life-
giving rays, would cause the principle of Ufe to penetrate
into the various degrees of human society by giving it
divinely inspired laws, by means of which society might
establish itself in that order which would be most con-
ducive to its welfare. Hence in proportion as society
separates itself from the Church, which is an important
element in its strength, by so much does it decline, or
its woes are multiplied for the reason that they are sepa-
rated whom God wished to bind together.

576 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

As for Us, We never weary as often as the occasion
presents itself to inculcate these great truths, and We
desire to do so once again and in a very explicit manner
on this extraordinary occasion. May God grant that the
faithful will take courage from what We say and be
guided to unite their efforts more efficaciously for the
common good; that they may be more enUghtened and
that Our adversaries may understand the injustice which
they commit in persecuting the most loving mother and
the most faithful benefactress of humanity.

We would not wish that the remembrance of these
afflictions should diminish in the souls of the faithful that
full and entire confidence which they ought to have in
the divine assistance. For God, in His own hour and
in His mysterious ways, will bring about a certain victory.
As for Us, no matter how great the sadness which fills
Our heart, We do not fear for the immortal destiny of
the Church. As We have said in the beginning, perse-
cution is its heritage, because in trying and in purifying
its children, God thereby obtains for them greater and
more precious advantages. And in permitting the Church
to undergo these trials He manifests the divine assistance
which He bestows upon it, for He provides new and un-
looked-for means of assuring the support and the develop-
ment of His work, while revealing the futifity of the
powers which are leagued against it. Nineteen centuries
of a life passed in the midst of the ebb and flow of all
human vicissitudes teach us that the storms pass by with-
out ever affecting the foundations of the Church. We are
able all the more to remain unshaken in this confidence,
as the present time affords indications which forbid de-
pression. We cannot deny that the difficulties that con-
front us are extraordinary and formidable, but there
are also facts before our eyes which give evidence, at the
same time, that God is fulfilling His promises with admirable
wisdom and goodness.

Wliile so many powers conspire against the Church and

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFfCATE. 577

while she is progressing on her way deprived of all human
help and assistance, is she not in effect carrying on her
gigantic work in the world and is she not extending her
action in every clime and every nation? Expelled by
Jesus Christ, the prince of this world can no longer exer-
cise his proud dominion as heretofore; and although
doubtless the efforts of Satan may cause us many a woe
they will not achieve the object at which they aim. Al-
ready a supernatural tranquillity due to the Holy Ghost,
who provides for the Church and who abides in it, reigns
not only in the souls of the faithful but also throughout
Christianity; a tranquillity whose serene development we
witness everywhere, thanks to the union ever more and
more close and affectionate with the Apostolic vSee; a
union which is in marvellous contrast with the agitation,
the dissension, and the continual unrest of the various
sects which disturb the peace of society. There exists
also between bishops and clergy a union which is fruitful
in mmiberless works of zeal and charity. It exists like-
wise between the clergy and laity who, more closely knit
together and more completely freed from human respect
than ever before, are awakening to a new life and organ-
izing with a generous emulation in defence of the sacred
cause of religion. It is this union which We have so often
recommended and which We recommend again, which
We bless that it may develop still more and may rise like
an impregnable wall against the fierce violence of the
enemies of God.

There is nothing more natural than that, like the branches
which spring from the roots of the tree, these numberless
associations which we see with joy flourish in our days
in the bosom of the Church should arise, grow strong
and multiply. There is no form of Christian piety which
has been omitted whether there is question of Jesus Christ
Himself, or His adorable mysteries, or His divine Mother,
or the saints whose wonderful virtues have illumined the
world. Nor has any kind of charitable work been forgotten.

578 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

On all sides there is a zealous endeavor to procure Christian
instruction for youth; help for the sick; moral teaching
for the people and assistance for the classes least favored
in the goods of this world. With what remarkable rapidity
this movement would propagate itself and what precious
fruits it would bear if it were not opposed by the unjust
and unfriendly efforts with, which it finds itself so often
in conflict.

God, who gives to the Church such great vitality in
civihzed countries where it has been established for so
many centuries, consoles us besides with other hopes.
These hopes we owe to the zeal of Catholic missionaries.
Not permitting themselves to be discouraged by the perils
which they face; by the privations which they endure; by
the sacrifices of every kind which the)^ accept, their num-
bers are increasing and they are gaining whole countries
to the Gospel and to civihzation. Nothing can diminish
their courage, although after the manner of their divine
Master they receive only accusations and calumnies as
the reward of their untiring labors.

Thus our sorrows are tempered by the sweetest conso-
lations, and in the midst of the struggles and the difficul-
ties which are our portion we have wherewith to refresh
our souls and to inspire us with hope. This ought to
suggest useful and Vvdse reflections to those who view
the world with intelligence, and who do not peimit pas-
sions to blind them ; for it proves that God has not made
man independent in what regards the last end of hfe,
and just as He has spoken to him in the past so He
speaks again in our day by His Church, which is visibly
sustained by the divine assistance and which shows clearl}-
where salvation and truth can be found. Come what
may, this eternal assistance will inspire our hearts with
an incredible hope and persuade us that at the houi'
marked by Providence and in a future which is not remote,
truth will scatter the mists in which men endeavor to
shroud it and will shine forth more brilliantly than ever.

REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE. 579"

The spirit of the Gospel will spread life anew in the heart

of our corrupted society and in its perishing members.

In what concerns Us, Venerable Brethren, in order to
hasten the day of divine mercy, We shall not fail in Our
duty to do everything to defend and develop the kingdom
of God upon earth. As for you, your pastoral solicitude
is too well known to Us to exhort you to do the same.
May the ardent flame which burns in your hearts be trans-
mitted more and more to the hearts of all your priests.
They are in immediate contact with the people. If, full
of the spirit of Jesus Christ and keeping themselves above
political passion, they unite their action with yours they
will succeed with the blessing of God in accomplishing
marvels. By their word they v\dll enhghten the multi-
tude; by their sweetness of manners they will gain all
hearts, and in succoring with charity their suffering
brethren, they will help them little by little to better the
condition in which they are placed.

The clergy will be firmly sustained by the active and
intelHgent cooperation of all men of good will. Thus the
children who have tasted the sweetness of the Church will
thank her for it in a worthy way, viz., by gathering around
her to defend her honor and her glory. All can contribute
to this work which will be so splendidly meritorious for
them ; Hterary and learned men, by defending her in books
or in the daily press, which is such a powerful instrument
now made use of by her enemies; fathers of famihes and
teachers, by giving a Christian education to children;
magistrates and representatives of the people, by showing
themselves firm in the principles which they defend as
well as by the integrity of their lives and in the profession
of their faith without any vestige of human respect. Our
age exacts lofty ideals, generous designs, and the exact
observance of the laws. It is by a perfect submission to
the directions of the Holy See that this discipline will be
strengthened, for it is the best means of causing to dis-
appear or at least of diminishing the evil which party

580 REVIEW OF HIS PONTIFICATE.

opinions produce in f(^menting divisions; and it will assist
us in uniting all our efforts for attaining that higher end,
namely, the triumph of Jesus Christ and His Church.
Such is the duty of Cathohcs. As for her final triumph
she depends upon Him who watches with wisdom and love
over His immaculate spouse, and of whom it is written,
Jesus Christ, yesterday, to-day and the same forever}

It is therefore to Him, that at this moment v,e
should lift our hearts in humble and ardent prayer,
to Him who, loving with an infinite love our erring
humanity, has wished to make Himself an expiatory
victim by the sublimity of His martyrdom; to Him
who, seated although unseen in the mystical bark of
His Church, can alone still the tempest and command
the waves to be cakn and the furious winds to cease.
Without doubt, Venerable Brethren, you with Us will
ask this divine Master for the cessation of the evils which
are overwhelming society, for the repeal of all hostile
law, for the illumination of those who more perhaps
through ignorance than through malice, hate and per-
secute the religion of Jesus Christ ; and also for the drawing
together of all men of good will in close and holy union.

May the triumph of truth and of justice be thus has-
tened in the world, and for the great family of men may
better days dawn ; days of tranquillity and of peace.

Meanwhile as a pledge of the most precious and divine
favor may the benediction which We give you with all
Our heart, descend upon you and all the faithful com-
mitted to your care.

*Heb. zui. 8.

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Sequel to "Lucky Bob."
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A BOY OF HIM.
TOM PLAYFAIR; OR, MAK-
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SOLVED.
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IT OUT.
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THE ADVENTURES OF A

NEW COMER.
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AND OTHER STORIES.
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ISLAND.
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HELD IN THE EVERGLADES.
Spalding. S.J. net, $1.50.

HIS FIRST AND LAST APPEAR-
ANCE. Finn. S.T. net. $1.25.

HIS LUCKIEST YEAR. Finn,
S.J. net, $1.25.

HOI-AH! McDonald, net, $1.50.

HOSTAGE OF WAR. A. Bone-
STEEL, net, $0.75.

HOW THEY WORKED THEIR
WAY. Egan. net, $1.00.

INDIAN GOLD-SEEKER. THE.
Spalding, S.J. net, $1.50.

IN QUEST OF ADVENTURE.
Mannix. ne^ $0.75.

IN QUEST OF THE GOLDEN
CHEST. Barton, net, $1.00.

IN THE WILDS OF THE CAN-
YON. Spalding, S.J. net. $1.50.

JACK. By a ReUgioua, H. C. J.
net. $0.75.

JACK-O'-LANTERN. Waggaman.
net. $0.75.

JACK HILDRETH ON THE
NILE. Taggart. ne*. $1.00.

KLONDIKE PICNIC. A, Don-
nelly', net. $1.00.
LAST LAP, THE. McGsath, S.J.
tut. $1.50.

LITTLE APOSTLE ON CRUTCtt

ES. Delamare. net, $0.75.

LITTLE GIRL FROM BACK

EAST. Roberts, net, $0.75. ,
LITTLE LADY OF THE HALL.

Ryeman. net, $0.75. _ „„_
LITTLE MARSHALLS AT THE

LAKE. NixoN-RouLET. net,

$1.00.
LITTLE MISSY. Waggaman. fut,

$0 7'-
LOYAL BLUE AND ROYAL

SCARLET. Taggart. net. $1.50.
LORD BOUNTIFUL. Finn. S.J.

net. $1.25.
LUCKY BOB. Finn, S.J. net,

MADCAP SET AT ST. ANNE'S.

Brunowe. net, $0.75.
MAD KNIGHT. THE. Schaching.

net. $0.75. _ ^

MAKING OF MORTLAKE. Cb.

pus, S.J. net, $1.00. _

MAKING THE ELEVEN AT

ST MICHAEL'S. Uniack. net.

$1.50.
MAN FROM NOWHERE. Sahusb.

net, $1.50.
MANGLED HANDS. Boytok.

S.T. net, $1.25.
MARKS OF THE BEA^ CLAWS.

Spalding, S.J. net, $1.50.
MARTHA JANE. Speckling, nrt,

$1 SO
MARTHA JANE AT COLLEGE.

Speckling, net. $1.50. ,^

MARY ROSE AT BOARDING

SCHOOL. Wirries. net. $1.50.
MARY ROSE GRADUATE. Wis.

RiES. net, $1.50. „

MARY ROSE KEEPS HOUSE,

Wirries. net, $1.50.
MARY ROSE SOPHOMORE. Wiir

RIES. net. $1.50.

MARY TRACEY'S FORTUNE,

Sadlier. net, $0.75.
MILLY AVELING. Smith, net

$1.00.
MIRALDA. Johnson, net, $0.75.
MOSTLY BOYS. Finn, S.J. net,

$1 25
MYSTERIOUS DOORWAY. Sad-
lier. vet, $0.75.
MYSTERY OF CLEVERLY. Ba«-

ton. net, $1.00.
MYSTERY OF HORNBY HALL.

Sadlier. net, $1.00.
NAN NOBODY. Waggaman. net,

$0.75.
NEW SCHOLAR AT ST. ANNE'S.

Brunowe. net, $1.00.
OLD CHARLMONT'S SEEDBED.

Smith, net, $0.75. _

OLD MILL ON THE WITHROSE.

Spalding, S.T. net, $1.50.
ON THE RUN. Finn, S.J. nef,

$1 25
ON ' THE SANDS OF CONEY.

BOYTON, S.J. net. $1.25.

PAMELA'S LEGACY. Taggart.

net, $1.50.
PANCHO AND PANCHITA. Mak-

UIX. net, $0.75.
PAULINE ARCHER. Sadlibk.

net, $0.75.
PERCY WYNN. Finn, S.J. nef,

$1.25.
PERIL OF DIONYSIO. Mannix.

nei, $0.75.
PETRONILLA. Donnelly, nef.

$1.00. _

PICKLE AND PEPPER. Dorsey.

net, $1.75.
PILGRIM FROM IRELAND. CaEt

NOT. net, $0.75. _>„„

PLAYWATER PLOT, THE.

Waggaman. net, $1.50.
QUEEN'S PAGE. THE. HiNKSOir.

net, $0.75.
QUEEN'S PROMISE, THE. Wag-
gaman. net, $1.50.
QUEST OF MARY SELWYN.

Clementia. net, $1.50.
RACE FQR COPPER ISLANIX

Spalding, S.J. net, $1.50.
REARDON RAHl Holland, S.J-

net, $1.50.
RECRUIT TOMMY COLLINS.

BONESTEEL. net, $0.75. „ ^

ST. CUTHBERT'S Copus, S.J.

net, $1.00.
SANDY JOE. Waggaman. nef.

$1.50.
SCHOONER AHOY! McDonalix.

net, $1.50.
SEA-GULL'S ROCK. Sandeatt.

net, $0.75. _

SEVEN LITTLE MARSHALL^.

NixoN-RouLET. net, $0.75.
SHADOWS LIFTED. Copus, S.J.

net, $1.00. „

SHERIFF OF THE BEECH

FORK. Spalding, S.J. net,

$1.50.
SHIPMATES. Waggaman. neP.

$LSO.

VU. Q3L0&fiP PICTURE
CATHOUC NURSERY RHYMES.

Sr. Mary Gertrude. Retail, $0.25.
LITTLE FLOWER'S LOVE FOR

THE EUCHARIST. Sr. M.

Eleanore. CS.C. net, $0.20.
LITTLE FLOWER'S LOVE FOR

HER PARENTS, Sr. M. Elea-
nore, CS.C net. $0.20.
MASS FOR CHILDREN, THE.

Kelly. List. $0.32.
OUR FIRST COMMUNION. Kel-

lY. list, $0.32.

SIGNALS FROM THE BAX
TREE. Spalding, S.J. net^

$1.50.
STRANDED ON LONG BAR.

Spalding, S.J. net, $1.50.
STRONG ARM OF AVALON.

Waggaman. net, $1.50.
SUGAR CAMP AND AFTER.

Spalding, S.J. net, $1.50.
SUMMER AT WOODVILLE. Sao-

LiER. net, $0.75.
SUNSHINE AND FRECKLES.

Finn, S.J. net, $1.25.
TALISMAN, THE. Sadlier, net.

$1.00.
TAMING OF POLLY. Dorset.

net, $1.75.
THAT FOOTBALL GAME. Finn.

S.J. net, $1.25.
THAT OFFICE BOY, Finn. S.J.

net, $1.25.
THREE GIRLS AND ESPECTAL-

LY ONE. Taggart. net, $0.75.
TOM LOSELY; BOY. Copus, S.J.

net, $1.00.
TOM PLAYFAIR. Finn, S.J. net,

$1 25
TOM'S LUCK-POT. Waggaman.

net, $0.75.
TRANSPLANTING OF TESSIE.

Waggaman. net, $1.50.
TREASURE OF NUGGET MOUN-

TAIN. Taggart. net, $1.00.
TWO LITTLE GIRLS. Mack. net.

$0.75.
UNCLE FRANK'S MARY. Cle-

mentia. net, $1.50.
UPS AND DOWN OF MAR-

JORIE. Waggaman. net, $0.75.
VIOLIN MAKER. Smith, net,

$0.75.
WHERE MONKEYS SWING.

BoYTON, S.J. net, $1.25.
WINNETOU. THE APACHE

KNIGHT. Taggart. net, $1.00.
WHOOPEE! BoYTON, S.J. net.

$1.25.

BOOKS FOR CHILDREN

OUR SACRAMENTS. Kelly. List,

$0.60.
WONDER DAYS. Taggart. net,

$0.40.
WONDER GIFTS. Taggart. net,

$0.40.
WONDER OFFERING. Taggjuit-

net, $0.40.
WONDER STORY. Taggart. net,

$0.40.

VIII. NOVELS

ISABEL C. CLARKE'S GREAT
NOVELS.
A CASE OF CONSaENCE.
net, $2.50.

Each, net. $2.00.

CASTLE OF SAN SALVO.

SELMA.

IT HAPPENED IN ROME.

VILLA BY THE SEA, THE.

CHILDREN OF THE SHADOW-

VIOLA HUDSON.

ANNA NUGENT.

CARINA.
AUTOGRAPH FICTION.
LIBRARY. Each, net $1.75.

AVERAGE CABINS,

THE LIGHT ON THE LA-
GOON.

THE POTTER'S HOUSE.

TRESSIDER'S SISTER.

URSULA FINCH.

THE ELSTONES.

EUNICE.

LADY TRENT'S DAUGHTER.

CHILDREN OF EVE.

THE DEEP HEART.

WHOSE NAME IS LEGION.

FINE CLAY.

PRISONER'S YEARS.

THE REST HOUSE.

ONLY ANNE.

THE SECRET CITADEL.

BY THE BLUE RIVER.
ANNA NUGENT. Clarke, net.

$2.00.
AVERAGE CABINS. Clarke, net.

$1.75.
BOY. Inez Specking, net, $1.50.
BUT THY LOVE AND THY

GRACE. Finn, net, $1.25.
BY THE BLUE RIVER. CLarkk.

net, $1.75.
CABLE, THE. Taggart. net.

$2.00.
CARINA. Clarke, net, $2.00.
CASE OF CONSCIENCE. A.

Clarke, net, $2.50.
CASTLE OF SAN SALVO.

Clarke, net, $2.00.
CHILDREN OF THE SHADOW.

Clarke, net, $2.00.
CHILDREN OF EVE. Clarke.

net, $1.75.
CIRCUS-RIDER'S DAUGHTER.

Brackel. net, $1.00.
CONNOR, D'ARCY'S STRUG-
GLES. Bertholds. net, $1.00.
DEEP HEART. THE. Clarke;

net, $1.75.
DENYS THE DREAMER. Hink-

SON. net, $1.00.
DION AND THE SIBYLS. Keow.

net, $1.00.
ELSTONES, THE. Clarke, net.

$1.75.
EUNICE. Clarke, net. $1.75.
FABOLA. Wiseman. Paper, $0.35;

cloth, net, $1.00.
FABIOLA'S SISTERS. Clarke.

net, Ji. 00.
FALSE GODS. Will Scasist,

net, $1.00.
FAUSTULA. Aybcouoh. net,

S^.OO.
FINE CLAY. Clarke, net, $1.75.
FOR BETTER FOR WORSE.

Scott, S.J. n^, $1.75.
FORGIVE AND FORGET. Li«-

MN. net. $1.00.

GRAPES OF THORNS. Wacca-

MAN. net, $1.00.
HEIRESS OF CRONENSTEIN.

Hahn-Hahn. net. $1.00.
HER JOURNEY'S END. Cookb.

net, $1.00.
IDOLS; OR. THE SECRET OF

THE RUE CHAUSSE D'AN-

TIN. DE Navery. net, $1.00.
IN GOD'S COUNTRY. Boytow.

S.J. net, $1.25.
IN GOD'S GOOD TIMK Ross.

net, $1.00.
IN SPITE OF ALL. STAMiFoarH.

net, $1.00.
IT HAPPENED IN ROME.

Clarke, net, $2.00.
KELLY. Scott, S.J. net. $1.75.
KIND HEARTS AND CORO-

NETS. Harrison, net, $1.00.
LADY TRENT'S DAUGHTER.

Clarke, net, $1.75.
LIGHT OF HIS COUNTENANCE.

Hart, net, $1.00.
LIGHT ON THE LAGOON. THE.

Clarke, net, $1.75.
"LIKE UNTO A MERCHANT,"

Gray, net, $1.00.
MARCELLA GRACE. Mulhol-

LAND. net, $1.00.
MARIQUITA. Ayscocgh. nee.

$2.00.
MIRAGE. Speckin-g. TieP, $1.50.
MISS ERIN. Francis, net, $1.00.
MISSY. Specking, net, $1.50.
MONK'S PARDON, THE. DX

Navery. net, $1.00.
MY LADY BEATRICE. Cookb.

net, $1.00.
NO HANDICAP. Taggart. net.

$2.00.
ONLY ANNE. Clarke, net, $1.75.
PASSING SHADOWS. Yorke.

net, $0.80.
POTTER'S HOUSE, THE. Classs.

net, $1.75.
PRISONERS' YEARS. Claskb.

net, $1.75.
PROPHET'S WIFE. Browne, net.

$1.00.
REST HOUSE, THE. Clarbc net.

$1 75
ROSE OF THE WORLD. Mabtik.

net. $1.00.
RUBY CROSS, THE. Wajjimsx

net. $1.00.
RULfcR OF THE KINGDOM.

Keon. net, $1.50.
SECRET CITADEL. THE. Claske.

net, $1.75. _

SECliET OF THE GREEN VASE.

Cooke, net, $1.00.
SELMA. Clarke, net. $2.00.
SHADOW OF EVERSLEIGH.

Lansdowne. net, $1.00.
SO AS BY FIRE. Connor, net.

$1.00.
TEMPEST OF THE HEART.

Gray, net, $1.00.

TEST OF COURAGE. Ross, net, URSULA FINCH. Claxxx. tm

$1.00. $1.75.

TRESSIDER'S SISTER. Cuulkb. VILLA BY THE SEA. THE.

TURk^'oF THE TIDE, THE. vTnY^imJnv °V

Gray. net. $1.00. ^19^^ HUDSON. Claiks. net.

UNBIDDEN GUEST, THE. Cooke. „,! vr^„ . », , r-i^ nr-v^xTT^ ^rr^

ytet $1 00 WAY THAT LED BEYOND, THE.

UNDER ' THE CEDARS AND Harrison, net, $1.00.

THE STARS. Canoh Sossbah. WHOSE NAME IS LEGION.

ntt, $3.50. CUass. n*t, $1.7$.

3 5282 00347 7364

DATE DUE

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BX870
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